CASTING SURFACE DEFECTS

 The most common surface defects in casting are:

I. Rough surface finish

II. Metal penetration

III. Burn-on (or penetration due to metal/sand reaction)

IV. Expansion defects (scabs, veins, rattails)

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Characteristic Features Gating and pouring practice

 Pouring temperature too high
The casting surface exhibits a level of roughness  Metallostatic pressure too high
corresponding to the size of the sand grains.
Incidence of the Defect
The defect primarily occurs near the gate and in very hot
areas, and is frequently to be regarded as an early stage of
penetration. The defect is also found at positions where
mould compaction is poor.

Possible causes
Clay-bonded sand
 Sand grains too coarse
 Too little lustrous carbon producer in
the moulding sand
 Too few fines in the sand

Moulding plant
 Too little compaction
 Too much adhesion of sand grains to
Grey iron casting. Surface roughness primarily
the pattern equivalent to the sand grain size. Coarser
 Too little bonding of the sand grains in roughness is caused by the breaking loose of
the mould surface sand and its adhesion to the pattern plate.
Remedies
Clay-bonded sand
 Use fine-grain sand. If necessary, refine
care sand so as to adjust the finess of the
recirculating sand.
 Increase production of lustrous carbon in
the moulding sand. Adjust “active carbon
content” to 0.35%-0.45%
 Use carbon carrier that produces more
lustrous carbon.
 Increase fines content. Increase cake
formation in moulding sand if necessary
increase return of dust in order to increase
fines content.
Moulding plant
 Improve mould compaction. Increase compacting pressure. Improve sand distribution to achieve
more uniform mould compaction.
 Reduce adhesion of sand grains to the pattern. Use a release agent or use it more frequently.
Sufficiently heat pattern.
 Improve bonding of sand grains at the mould surface. Avoid rapid drying-out of the surface by
means of better development.

Gating and pouring practice

 Reduce pouring temperature
 Improve gates. Avoid local overheating
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Roughness

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Surface Roughness and Sand Adherence

 The ideal mould would possess a smooth, impervious surface capable of being faithfully
reproduced on the casting. This situation is closely approached with alloys of low melting point
but at higher temperatures surface roughness and sand adhesion can be encountered, with loss
of appearance and increased dressing costs.

 In the worst cases the moulding material becomes impregnated with metal to form a solid
mass. This can be difficult to remove and if the condition occurs in a confined pocket the
casting itself may be scrapped.

 Metal penetration is primarily responsible for sand adhesion.

 The controlling factors: both metal and mould variables are involved.

 Penetration into voids in the moulding material depends primarily upon the pressure head of
liquid and thus upon the design, orientation and feeding technique associated with a particular
casting.

 Penetration has been shown to occur at a critical pressure directly proportional to the surface
tension of the metal and is therefore also affected by alloy composition.
 Since metal flow depends upon superheat, a low temperature minimises surface roughness and sand
adherence. In castings of very heavy section and high thermal capacity, deep penetration may result from
the attainment of liquid metal temperatures to a considerable depth within the sand.

 Surface quality is directly influenced by the mould material and finish, the predominant characteristic being
the initial porosity: penetration is thus directly related to permeability.

 Low porosity can be achieved either by fine grain size, continuous grading or the use of powdered filler
materials.

 However, mould coatings or facings enable surface porosity to be reduced without sacrificing the qualities
required in the bulk material.

 The formation of liquid oxide and slag has been thought in certain cases to reduce the pressure needed for
metal penetration by ausing wetting of the sand grains: this has been held to account for the improved
surfaces of iron castings under the reducing atmospheres created by coal dust additions.

 This is not a universal effect, however, since oxide films have been shown in some cases to inhibit
penetration, no doubt by increasing the effective surface tension of the liquid metal. Much must, therefore,
depend upon the characteristics of the oxide film as established by the elements present in the alloy.

 Carbonaceous dressings containing volatile matter are also held to improve casting surfaces by creating a
back pressure opposing penetration.
Distinction between Metal Penetration and Sand Burn-on

 From time to time, most foundries have

trouble with poor surface finish due
either to metal penetration or to sand
burn-on. While these defects are rarely
severe enough to cause a casting to be
scrapped, they increase fettling time and
costs. If not rectified, their presence
causes trouble in machine shops, due to
dimensional inaccuracies and increased
tool wear.
Typical metal penetration.

 To outward appearances metal penetration and sand burn-on can be easily confused, but it is
important to realize that they are different problems with mainly separate causes.
 Metal penetration is the result of liquid iron penetration into the cavities between sand grains
in a mould surface. When the metal solidifies the sand grains are mechanically locked to the
casting surface. Metal penetration may occur as a thin layer covering a large area of the
casting surface, or as a thick mass confined to small areas. Metal penetration often commences
at some point of local weakness in a mould surface, and subsequently the molten iron spreads
behind the interface..
 Sand-burn-on, on the other hand, is the formation of a very adherent sand layer on the
casting surface. It results from sand grains being chemically bonded to the casting
surface by the products of a mould-metal reaction.

 A typical example is illustrated in the figure. Burn-on is usually encountered in the

vicinity of in-gates or heavy sections, and can be prevalent where thin sections of sand
mould or core are surrounded by thick metal sections.

Sand burn-on to a casting surface

 The differences between the two
defects can be seen from the
microstructures in the figures. The
metal penetration shows iron at some Penetration of a
distance from the casting surface mould surface by
cast iron.
surrounding sand grains and forming
a conglomeration of sand and iron
locked to the casting surface.
 Sand burn-on has a very different
appearance, and the figure shows that
sand grains are bonded to the casting
surface by mould-metal reaction
Micrograph of
products caused by metallic oxides sand burn-on
combining with siliceous materials formed from clay-
such as sand, clay or sodium silicate bonded sand. x60.
to form a complex liquid iron-silicate
slag.
 Causes of Metal Penetration

 There is no single cause for metal penetration; many aspects of foundry practice may contribute to
the formation of the defect. Nevertheless, in many cases metal penetration is associated with an
open-grain mould structure which results from the use of a coarse sand or poor mould compaction.
 The occurrence of metal penetration has increased in recent years, as the mixtures used for
greensand moulding have become coarser. This has arisen because many modern foundries have
greensand and cold-set moulding-lines using the same base sand.
 Further, the new-sand addition on many greensand moulding-lines is made up totally from
relatively coarse burnt-out core residue material.
 Causes of metal penetration in castings made in greensand moulds are:

1. Ferrostatic pressure and a coarse sand-grain size.

2. Poor mould compaction.
3. Gas explosions in the mould cavity
4. Failure of mould coatings.
 Other causes may be

5. Lack of refractoriness of the sand.

6. High metal-pouring temperature
7. Mould cracking
 (1) Ferrostatic pressure and sand grain size

 The higher the ferrostatic pressure, i.e. the pressure on a mould

surface due to the height of metal in a mould cavity or running-
system, the more likely is the occurrence of metal penetration.
 Ferrostatic pressure obviously depends on casting geometry, and
its effect in causing penetration will be greatest in tall or thick-
section castings or castings having high risers.
 The extent to which ferrostatic pressure causes metal penetration
depends upon the size of the pores between the sand grains, and
this is largely governed by the sand grading.
 The figure shows how the ferrostatic height required to initiate
metal penetration decreases as the sand becomes coarser. Sand has
an average grain size of 0.150 mm, and the graph shows that a
ferrostatic pressure in excess of 600 mm of iron is required before
metal penetration is likely to be initiated. With a coarser sand, with
an average grain size of 0.400 mm, it is shown that metal
penetration could occur when the ferrostatic pressure exceeds 250
mm.
 The effects of ferrostatic pressure are exaggerated when metal Effect of ferrostatic height on
penetration into sand moulds.
flows into a mould cavity at high velocities, or when metal
impinges directly on the mould cavity wall.
(2) Mould compaction

 A poorly compacted mould will have an

open grain structure, and metal
penetration will occur readily.

 The figure shows how the ferrostatic

height required to initiate penetration
increases as mould compaction is
improved.

 Maintaining good mould compaction is

an effective means of controlling metal Variation in height of casting at which metal
penetration. penetration occurs with changes in bulk
density of sand.
(3) Gas explosions in the mould cavity

 Foundries operating high-pressure moulding-machines sometimes experience

extensive problems of metal penetration. Because moulds are rammed to high
densities, metal penetration is not expected.

 The penetration can be widespread over a casting surface, but it usually

occurs only to a limited depth. Penetration of this type has been found to be
most prevalent in hard-rammed moulds having a low permeability and
inadequate venting.

 The problem is particularly pronounced when the sand has a high water
content or high volatile content.
 (4) Failure of mould coatings

 While a refractory mould coating can be very

beneficial in reducing metal penetration, there can
be local failure of the coating and this is often due
to inadequate mixing or poor application.
 If a coating is found to be ineffective it is common
practice to apply the coating more thickly. This
only leads to more problems, since the coating is
then likely to crack and spall, allowing molten
metal to flow down the cracks and penetrate the
under-lying unprotected mould surface.
 The microstructure of a coating on a mould
surface and this shows that the coating undergoes
little physical change when the casting is poured.
It is also apparent that the liquid iron which has
penetrated behind the coating has not filtered
through the coating, but has penetrated locally
through cracks arising from thermal shock and
expansion effects.
Structure of mould coating before and after casting.
 (5) Refractoriness of sand

 A sand which sinters or melts slightly when

iron is poured into a mould can cause metal
penetration. Sintering causes sand grains to
agglomerate, and this has the effect of
increasing the coarseness of the sand and the
pore size.
 The sintering temperature of a bonded sand is
determined by the type of sand used, the Sintered mass of sand grains.
impurities present, the bonding clay employed
and the presence of any residual core binder. Sintering temperatures of bonded sands

SINTERING-POINT, C
 Residues from sodium-silicate-bonded cores
have a particularly pronounced effect in Sand 6% Sodium-
6% 6% Natural
lowering the sintering temperature and No
Binder
Sodium
Carbonate
Treated
Sodium
Silicate Bentonite
promoting metal penetration. Bentonite

 The way in which these variables affect the I 1450 1200 1250 1350

sintering temperature of two sands is shown in II 1250 1000 1100 1150

the following table.
 (6) Metal-pouring temperature
 The use of excessively high pouring-temperatures
can cause metal penetration. High pouring-
temperatures promote sintering, and cause
ferrostatic pressure to be effective for a greater
period while the metal remains in the liquid
condition in the mould cavity.

(7) Mould cracking Massive penetration initiated by a cracked

core

 Failure of moulds by cracking can result from expansion forces and thermal stresses which
occur during casting. Cracked moulds usually give a metal fin, which may initiate more
general metal penetration.
 An example of how a fin of molten metal has penetrated a crack in the mould surface, and has
then been diffused out through the sand mass forming a thick layer of metal penetration.
 This form of penetration has a characteristic appearance, and its cause is easy to identify.
 Mould-cracking resulting in penetration of this type is most common with hard chemically
bonded sand moulds and occurs less commonly with greensand moulds.
Elimination of Metal Penetration

1. If it is suspected that metal penetration is occurring, owing to ferrostatic pressure, a practical remedy
is to use finer sands and harder mould compaction. It is important to ensure that the moulds are
evenly compacted, paying particular attention to deep cods, mould corners and edges, and to the
vertical faces of the mould cavity. Tough sand mixtures which are difficult to compact should be
avoided.

2. With high-pressure moulding systems, use as low a water content as possible while maintaining a
usable sand mix, and reduce the coaldust addition to the minimum required to give a satisfactory
general casting surface finish.

3. To prevent trouble from the accumulation of clay and coaldust it is necessary to ensure that
sufficient new sand is added to the system. The new-sand addition should be at least 10 percent of
the weight of metal poured or 1-2 percent of sand throughput.

4. Use sands having good refractory properties and avoid those containing impurities such as felspars,
mica or shell.

5. Use a refractory mould coating. Ensure that it is well mixed and that it has not been allowed to settle
prior to use. The coating should be used at the consistency recommended by the suppliers, and it
must be applied so that it uniformly covers the mould surface.

6. Use the lowest possible-metal pouring temperature.

Causes and Prevention of Sand Burn-on

 Sand burn-on due to a metal/mould reaction usually results from the use of sands and clays having poor
refractory properties. Thus, sands containing impurities should be avoided, and better results may be
obtained by bonding the sand with a natural sodium bentonite rather than using a sodium-activated calcium
bentonite which has inferior refractory properties.

 Greensands which have become contaminated with residues from sodium-silicate bonded cores are
particularly prone to burn-on.

 Heavy-section castings which heat the mould surface to high temperatures for long periods tend to give
excessive metal/mould reaction and cause severe sand burn-on.

 However, the burn-on is less adherent than that which occurs on thinner-section castings.

 If sand burn-on is a problem, it is essential to use sufficient coaldust or other carbonaceous material to
maintain a reducing mould-atmosphere during casting solidification. Further, it may be advisable to protect
the mould surface with a refractory coating.

 High metal-pouring temperatures should be avoided, to reduce metal/mould reactions, and good ladle
practice is required to prevent slag entering the mould cavity during pouring.

 The practice of knocking castings out of the moulds while they are very hot is a further important factor
contributing to sand burn-on. The rapid cooling incurred by hot knock-out causes the formation of vitreous
metal/mould reaction products and gives a particularly adherent type of burn-on which can be difficult to
remove.
METAL PENETRATION

Characteristic Features
Degree of roughness which is greater from
the size of sand grains, at hot spots or
under-compacted sections.
Incidence of the Defect
Penetration particularly occurs at positions
where parts of the mould have been heated
to a greater degree (edges, thick-walled
castings, near to the gate), and at sections
where the sand has been poorly compacted.
Grey iron casting. Penetration at the hottest
spot adjacent to the ingate

Explanations
Physical penetration is said to occur where the depth of ingress is larger than the size of the sand
grains and there is no chemical reaction between the moulding material and the infiltrating metal.
However, if there is a reaction, this is said to be penetration due to chemical reaction. In addition to
penetration through exceeding the critical metallostatic pressure, this defect can arise through
explosions and, with iron-carbon alloys, through graphite expansion.
Possible Causes
Clay-bonded sand
 Sand too coarse
 Insufficient carbon carriers
 Insufficient fines
 Excessive compactability

Resin-bonded sand
 Sand too coarse
 Insufficient compaction
of cores

Moulding plant
 Insufficient and non-uniform
mould compaction Micrograph of the metal / sand interface in a
grey iron casting. Purely physical penetration
of the liquid iron
Gating and pouring practice
 Mould and core sections overheated
Remedies
Clay-bonded sand
 Make the sand finer by using finer inflowing care sand, or by adding finer
sand to the circulating sand.
 Increase quality of carbon carrier. Increasing the lustrous carbon producing
capacity reduces the wetting of the surface of the sand.
 Increase cake content, this helps to further reduce the pore size.
 Increase quantities of fines. The silica contents of the dust removed from the
cake residues make suitable fines.
 Reduce the compactability of the sand. This increases its flowability. Better
compaction is also possible.
 Flowability can be improved by using carbon carriers containing graphite, or
combinations of bentonite/graphite.
Resin-bonded sand
 Use finer core sands or add fines such as iron oxide.
 Compact cores more uniformly and effectively, if necessary use a less viscous
binder.
 Dress cores at risk or, if necessary, increase the thickness of dressing.

Moulding plant
 Improve mould compaction. Increase the compacting pressure. Achieve more
uniform mould compaction through better sand distribution.
 Products containing graphite improve compaction and increase packing
density. At the same time, mould compaction becomes more uniform.

Gating and pouring practice

 Improve gating. Avoid excessive quantities of inflowing metal and thus local
overheating
 Increase spacing of patterns. Under certain circumstances this leads to reduce
of overheated areas.
 Reduce casting temperature.
Background information

The critical pressure above which molten

metal penetrates porous sand surface
depends on the surface tension, the pore
diameter and the wetting angle of contact
between the molten metal and the sand
grains.

If metallostatic pressure is greater than

Pcrit, penetration will take place:

2
Pcrit  cos 
r
Pcrit Pressure above which
penetration occurs
 Surface tension, molten The penetration depth of molten steel
depends on metallostatic pressure
metal
r Pore radius
 Wetting angle of melt / sand
contact
 In the case of iron alloys, surface tension is
increased by adding magnesium, aluminium
and chromium. As a result, the tendency to
penetration of SG cast iron is lower than that of
grey cast iron.

 In the case of resin-bonded mould parts, the

likelihood of penetration depends heavily on
the selected sand grain. Thus, Croning cores are
prepared with fine sands, cold-box moulds with
as coarse a sand as possible. Dressing,
particularly of cold-box cores, is frequently
necessary in order to avoid penetration.

 Penetration can occur if, during pouring, the

dressing layer cracks because of expansion of
the cores. Uniform compacting of the cores is The critical pressure for the onset of
necessary in order to keep the pore volume as penetration of molten steel depends on the
low as possible. pore radius in the moulding sand
 If a high proportion of core sand flows into bentonite-bonded sands, the grain size of the
core sand is crucially important to the grain size distribution in the green sand. Inflowing
coarse cold box sands increase the pore diameter. The critical pressure for the onset of
penetration becomes lower.

 If penetration occurs, a fine sand may be necessary. An addition of extracted fines can help
to avoid this defect.

 The lustrous carbon producing capacity has a lower influence on the pore diameter. It may
be necessary to increase the amount or to use a lustrous carbon producer with higher cake
formation.

 The mould surface should be uniformly and well compacted. Uniform compaction can be
achieved by using products which contain graphite.

 Penetration frequently occurs in the proximity of the gate. The inflowing quantities of metal
are too great and cause too much heating of the moulding material in this area. The defect
disappears when inflowing metal is better distributed.
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Penetration

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Penetration

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Penetration

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BURN-ON OR PENETRATION DUE TO CHEMICAL
REACTION

Characteristic Features
Firmly adhering conglomerates of
sand/metal at hot or poorly compacted
positions.
Incidence of the Defect
One refers to penetration due to chemical
reaction when, as opposed to simple
penetration by the molten metal, there is a
strong chemical reaction between the metal
Iron/sand conglomerate firmly adhering to a
and the sand grain (fitting, sintering). grey iron casting

A solid conglomerate of metal and sand adheres firmly to the casting. The spots where this defect is
likely to occur are edges in the mold or the core where; owing to the geometry of the casting, the
metal remains molten for a long time, resulting in extreme heating. Apart from edges, overheated
areas of the mould and the core which are poorly compacted are also at risk. The defect occurs more
frequently with copper alloys than with iron alloys, an account of the reaction between sand and
melt.
Possible Causes
Clay-bonded sand
 Compactability of the sand too high
 Moulding sand too coarse
 Sand has a low thermal resistance
 Too little lustrous carbon producer

Moulding plant
 Uneven or poor compaction

Resin-bonded sand
 Sand grains too coarse
 Poor compaction
Micrograph of a layer formed by penetration
Gating and pouring practice with chemical reaction in a grey iron casting.
 Pouring temperature too high The melt/sand reaction products are clearly
recognizable
 Excessive local overheating of mould
and core sections
 Metallostatic pressure too high
Remedies
Clay-bonded sand
 Reduce compactability of the sand; this will lead to more uniform and improved compaction.
 Make moulding sand finer, if necessary, use finer core sand; use inert fines (cake, etc.)
 Increase temperature resistance of the moulding sand, if necessary, add new sand to reduce
oolitization; do not use silica sands containing impurities
 Increase carbon carrier content in moulding sand to increase cake residue and lustrous carbon
production; if necessary, use lustrous carbon carriers with higher cake production

Moulding plant
 Improve compaction of moulds; if necessary, increase compacting pressure
 Improve sand filling process to attain more evenly compacted moulds

Resin-bonded sand
 Use finer core sand; compact cores more evenly and effectively
 Dress cores all over or at positions at risk; if necessary, apply dressing of greater thickness; use
dressing with low susceptibility to cracking.

Gating and pouring practice

 Reduce pouring temperature and pouring rate
 Improve gating systems in order to avoid local overheating of mould and core sections
 Reduce metallostatic pressure
Background information

 The defects “penetration” (physical) and penetration due to chemical reaction cannot be
clearly differentiated from each other. The latter is always preceded by physical
penetration. In the case of physical penetration, the main effect is the ingress of molten
metal owing to metallostatic pressure. Reactions between the melt and moulding sand
hardly ever occur. However, with this type of metal penetration, thicker silicate layers form
on the sand grains.

 Due to the reaction between silica sand and melt, the surface tension is markedly reduced;
the molten metal permeates deeply into the mould. Small pores are also filled with melt.
Hard, firmly adhering conglomerates of sand, slag and metal are formed.

 With copper-tin and copper-zinc alloys, penetration due to chemical reaction is triggered
by low-melting-point lead components and lead compounds. When casting such alloys
using bentonite-bonded sands, enrichment of the lead compounds further promotes reaction
of the metal with the sand.
 Apart from copper alloys, metal penetration frequently occurs during steel casting, principally
manganese steels. The manganese oxide slag generated is very aggressive. The use of chromite
sand instead of silica sand has been shown to be advantageous.

 The defect has also been found in the case of grey cast iron. In principle, the same remedies
apply as those employed to prevent physical penetration because the defect begins with ingress
of the molten metal or slag into the moulding material.

 A finer sand grain size counteracts susceptibility to metal penetration. The addition of fines also
has a positive effect. Moulding sands should not contain low-melting-point impurities, because
these promote reaction with the slag and the formation of low-melting-point slags. Adding
lustrous carbon producers has an advantages effect because they prevent the formation of
reactive oxides and slag. The lustrous carbon generated also prevents wetting of the sand grains.

 Metal may also more rapidly penetrate into poorly compacted sand sections, with severe heating
leading to reactions with the moulding material and allowing the melt to permeate even deeper.

 It is also important to achieve good compaction of cores. Where there is a risk of metal
penetration, it is necessary to select a fine sand grain size. Careful dressing is imperative, as
metal penetration can occur through small cracks in the dressing.
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EXPLOSIVE PENETRATION

Characteristic Features
Large-area penetration occurs in regions of
the mould which have been filled with
metal too quickly.
Incidence of the Defect
With molten metal flowing into a sand
mould, explosive wear evaporation often
occurs at positions where streams of metal
flow together or flow faster. This “water
vapour explosion” imparts a dynamic jolt to
the metal which forces it into the sand pores
Large area penetration in regions of fast inflowing metal-grey
over a large area. iron casting

In contrast to pure penetration, this phenomenon does not just occur at under-compacted areas or hot
spots. Its incidence is closely coupled with the path taken by the flowing metal and is often observed
in the last part of the mould cavity to be filled.
A uniformly thick penetrative crush often forms.
Explanation
 The defect has occurred more
frequently with the introduction of
high-pressure moulding and, in
particular, with the introduction of
core-making process which have led
to a high degree of replenishment of
the moulding sand.
 A fast flow rate of molten metal
causes the condensed water to
evaporate explosively when the metal
comes into contact with it. The Micrograph of a penetrated layer of an SG iron casting.
resultant pressure increase then forces Despite the high surface tension, the melt has been forced
the molten metal into the sand pores. into the sand pores
Possible Causes
Clay-bonded sand
 Moisture levels too high, above all “free” water in the moulding sand.
 Insufficient mulling of the moulding sand. The water is quickly released.
 Proportion of inert dust too high, thereby binding in too much water.
 Amounts of binder too high and thus too much water.
 Sand grains too coarse. Slight pressure increase through evaporating water leads to
penetration.
 Too much water bound in due to lustrous carbon produced and its residues

Moulding plant
 Moulds to highly compacted
 Unevenly compacted moulds with over-compacted areas

Gating and pouring practice

 Pouring rate too high. Metal streams running together too quickly
 Incomplete verifying of mould and core gases from the mould cavity
 Grey iron casting> Large-area penetration over the
complete grate.

Grey iron casting> Heavy penetration over the

lower part.
Remedies
Clay-bonded sand

 Reduce water content through use of high-quality bentonite with high thermal
stability and high montmorillonite content.
 Reduce compactability
 Improve degree of mulling by pre-moisturizing used sand, by accelerating water
absorption of bentonite, by increasing mixing times.
 Reduce inert dust content through use of high-quality bentonite. If necessary, restrict
dust recirculation.
 Reduce bentonite content. Use more highly active bentonite with higher
montmorillonite content.
 Reduce sand grain size. Use finer core sands or, from time to time, add fine new sand
to circulating sand.
 Use more active lustrous carbon producers. Reduce amount of lustrous carbon
producers and cake.
Moulding plant

 Homogenize mould compaction and reduce compacting pressure

 Endeavour to achieve more uniform sand filling

Gating and pouring practice

 Reduce pouring rate by modifying gating system. Reduce rate of mould filling
 Spray oil into sections at risk, thereby avoiding water condensation at these points
 Provide vents to improve removal of gases containing water vapour
Background information

 The moulding sand has a very strong influence on the occurrence of explosive penetrations.
Essentially, the compactability of the sand should be as low as possible. However, he
occurrence of condensed water largely depends on the amount of free water.

 For this reason, optimum mulling of the moulding sand is required. In addition, all
additives should be examined and replaced by more “active” substances as appropriate. It
has been operationally proved that the defect can be avoided merely by using bentonite
with a high montmorillonite content, since the inert fines content and thus the water
requirement is reduced.

 The defect is greatly affected by the grain size of the sand. When a very coarse circulating
sand is used, the defect occurs more frequently. It disappears when the sand grain size is
reduced by the addition of finer new sand. The AFS number should be maintained above
60.
 When explosive penetration occurs, the lustrous carbon carrier is often replaced by
materials that produce less cake and have greater capacity for forming lustrous carbon. “As
a result, the water requirement is also reduced.

 Over-compacted moulds more often show defects resulting from explosive penetration. Not
only the moulding sand but also the hardness of the mould should be checked when the
defects occur and, if necessary, the compacting pressure reduced.

 Raising the pouring temperature may be a means of avoiding this defect. Optimizing the
gating system appears to of greater importance. Incidences of explosive penetration can
avoided by employing tangential gating of the mould, with better distribution and laminar
metal flow.
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 SAND EXPANSION DEFECTS (SCAB FORMATION)

 Expansion scabs result from partial or

complete spalling of a section of mould
face and penetration of liquid metal
behind the surface layer of sand. The
defect is seen as an irregular metal scab, Start of a scab “rat tail” in
the upper part of a large-
which can be removed to expose the area grey iron casting
underlying sand trapped within the adjacent to the ingate.
casting.
 In some cases the expansion is
insufficient to bring about spalling and
metal penetration, but bulging and shear
cracking of the mould face produce a
surface fissure or line defect known as a
rat tail.
 In this case the casting surface shows
either a step or a shallow indentation
along the path of the incipient mould
failure, often with a short metal fin
representing the original crack. Scabs on the top part of a large-area grey iron casting.
  The effect of temperature on the volume of
 The defects often occur on upper quartz shows the sudden expansion
surfaces, particularly where moulds accompanying the    phase change
embody large flat areas without occurring at 575C; although quartz undergoes
intermediate points of support. Other further transformations to tridymite and
sites are associated with intense local cristobalite at higher temperatures, it is the
heating produced by flow of metal over mechanical shock associated with the sharp
the surface during pouring. change in volume at 575C which produces the
tendency to cracking and spalling.
 Important factors include the
constituents, grading, moisture content
and ramming density of the sand and the
pouring conditions in casting.
 Expansion defects are associated mainly
with siliceous moulding materials,
which show high expansion on heating
to relatively low temperature: identically
graded sands based on more volume-
stable minerals are not affected.
Effect of temperature on volume stability of quartz
The Nature of the Scabbing Process

 During pouring the upper surfaces of the mould are subjected to intense radiation
from the rising liquid metal, so that the surface layers of sand can reach the
transformation temperature before being submerged.

 Expansion of the mould face sets up compressive stresses causing the surface
successively to bulge, crack, peel and spall enabling metal to penetrate behind the
original surface.

 Alternatively, the sand expands and shears along a plane close to the edge of a zone
of intense heating a shown in the figure.
Mould expansion defects: scrab and rat tail formation
 The deformation capacity of the sand is
affected by the amount and type of
bonding material and can be increased
by special additives.
 High clay contents are beneficial since
they increase high temperature
deformation, firstly by their drying
shrinkage and subsequently by sintering.
 A high clay content also gives improved
wet strength. Although moisture content
should be kept to the minimum
consistent with adequate moulding
properties, the best type of clay is one
retaining reasonable green tensile
strength at moisture contents above the
Influence of binder content, moisture contents and
optimum. Sodium bentonites with their ramming density on scabbing tendency of molding sand
high swelling capacity combine this (1% cereal and various amounts of bentonite-scab free
quality with superior hot deformation area to left and above)
characteristics.
 Additives to counter expansion
include wood flour, coal dust and
other organic materials which
soften or decompose to cushion
the sand grains. Cereal binders
such as starch and extrin exercise a
similar effect, additions of
approximately 0.5% being
frequently made to clay bonded
sands for the purpose. The value
of cereals in diminishing scabbing
tendency is illustrated in the
figure, which summarizes the
results of investigations over a
range of cereal contents.
 Fibrous reinforcements have also
been used but involve practical
Sand mixtures bonded with 4.75% bentonite and
difficulties in mixing. various amounts of cereals
 The incidence of expansion defects is found to be greatest in the case of uniformly graded
sands. Under these conditions all the grains in the surface zone tend to undergo
transformation at approximately the same time, producing maximum thermal shock within
the sand mass.

 If, on the other hand, the sand is of widely distributed grain size, the smaller grains will
attain the transformation temperature at an earlier stage and the sand will undergo its major
expansion over a longer time interval.

 High ramming density is a further adverse factors since it reduces the capacity of the bulk to
absorb the expansion of the grains: high flowability can thus contribute to scabbing. This
problem is accentuated in high pressure moulding for which additives and high clay contents
are essential.
 The scab susceptibility of castings with brand horizontal surfaces in the cope arises from
radiation during pouring producing simultaneous expansion of large unsupported spans of
sand. The radiation interval can be diminished by fast pouring which is found to reduce the
scabbing tendency.

 The interval of exposure to radiation can also be shortened by casting on an incline: the
mould is then heated progressively across its upper surface.

 Reinforcement of susceptible surfaces with flat headed clout nails is widely practiced.

 A radical solution to persistent scabbing can be sought by a change to other types of

moulding material: the non-siliceous materials are inherently safer because of their lower
rates of expansion.
Burnt-on Sand

Characteristic features

Thin and crust firmly adhering to the casting. The defect occurs to a greater extent in
the case of thick-walled castings and at high temperatures.

Incidence of the defect

Where there is a heavy-section casting, but also in the proximity of the gate and at high
casting temperatures, the moulding sand sinters on the casting in the form of a thin
crust due to low thermal resistance. The tendency of the molten metal to penetrate into
the sand pores results in the firm adherence of the crust to the surface of the casting. It
is difficult to remove, even by shot-blasting, and usually has to be ground off.

Explanations

The high temperature to which the sand is subjected causes sintering of the bentonite
and silicate components. In addition, the always present iron oxides combine with the
low-melting-point silicates to form iron silicates, thereby further reducing the sinter point
of the sand. Sintering and melting of the impurities in the moulding sand enable the
molten iron to penetrate even faster, these layers then frequently and firmly adhering to
the casting surface.
Sand grains on the surface of a grey iron casting
with insufficient lustrous carbon
Possible causes

Clay-bonded sand

• Lustrous carbon content too low

• Proportion of low-melting-point substances too high
• Oolitization too high

Moulding plant

• Uneven mould compaction

Gating and pouring practice

• Uneven distribution of inflowing metal with resultant over-heating

• Temperature of liquid metal too high
Remedies

Clay-bonded sand

• Increase proportion of lustrous carbon producer. This in-creases the amount of

coke as well as the amount of lustrous carbon, which then results in positive
separation between mould and metal.
• Use purer silica sands or, if necessary, add new sand. Reduce dust content. If
necessary, reduce the amount of bentonite.
• Reduce oolitization by adding new sand.

Moulding plant

• Ensure uniform compaction. If necessary, increase heat removal from the

moulds.

Gating and pouring practice

• Even out incoming metal flow

• Reduce pouring rate
• Reduce liquid metal temperature
Background information

• Adhering sand layers primarily form when the lustrous carbon-producing capacity of the
moulding sand is too low. With grey iron castings, the lustrous carbon content in the sand should
lie between 0.2 and 0.6 %, according to other authors between 0.2 and 0.4%. Due to the
difficulty in precisely determining the lustrous carbon in the sand, the “active carbon content” is
measured and should be between 0.35 and 0.65%.

• If sand adherence is experienced, this can be eliminated either by using a higher proportion of or
a more “active” lustrous carbon producer.

• It is important to limit impurities in the moulding sand. Silicates and oxides can lead to excess
consumption of lustrous carbon producers due to oxidation.2 Lowering the sinter point of the
sand also increases the risk of burning-on, with simultaneous penetration of metal into the
adhering layer.

• Boosting the AFS number by using finer new sands similarly reduces adherence of sintered
crusts because the casting surface is smoother.

• The moulds should be well and uniformly compacted. There is a greater risk of metal penetration
at locations where compaction is low, and thus of the formation of adhering crusts.
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Lustrous carbon inclusions

Characteristic features

The formation of flow marks, inclusions, metal separation through unwetted carbon
films, these often being invisible because they can lie perpendicular to the wall of the
casting.

Incidence of the defect

Lustrous carbon inclusions occur where there is a surplus of lustrous carbon producers
in the moulding and core sand. They are often deposited in regions of the casting in
which greater turbulence occurs due to differences in density. In the case of spheroidal
graphite (SG) cast iron, they occur more frequently in conjunction with oxide and slag
defects.

Explanations

Lustrous carbon forms on inert surfaces through thermal decomposition of

hydrocarbon-bearing gases in reducing atmospheres above 650°C. Lustrous carbon is
deposited as a film on the silica grains of the mould. Relatively thick layers of lustrous
carbon film can result from the gas pressure which develops, particularly when
deposited on core sections.
 Grey iron housing. Area of very large lustrous
carbon inclusions in the top part of the casting.
Possible causes

Resin-bonded sand

• Lustrous carbon producing capacity of the core binder too high.

• Insufficient venting of core gases.

Clay-bonded sand

• Excessive formation of lustrous carbon in the moulding sand.

• Excessive or rapid release of lustrous carbon from the carbon carrier.

Moulding plant

• Gas permeability of the mould surface too low

Gating and pouring practice

• Too much turbulence, leading to inclusion of lustrous carbon

• Pouring temperature too low

The different thermal expansions of the silica and the lustrous carbon deposit can also give
rise to the detachment of thicker films.
Remedies

Resin-bonded sand
• Reduce amount of cold-box binder; if necessary, change over to binder with lower lustrous
carbon producing capacity.
• Warm up cold-box cores in order to reduce the proportion of solvent.
• Improve the venting of core gases. Check the core print for dressing residues, use coarser
sand.
• Add oxidation agent to the cores.
• Dress cores, apply thicker layer of coating.

Clay-bonded sand
• Reduce lustrous carbon production in the moulding sand either by decreasing the amount
of additive or by using other carbon carriers with lower lustrous carbon producing capacity
and slower release of gases.
• Improve gas permeability of moulding material.

Moulding plant
• Reduce compacting pressure in the moulding plant.
• Increase gas permeability of the mould.

Gating and pouring practice

• Avoid turbulence, ensure laminar flow of the metal.
• Increase pouring temperature.
Background information

• The amount of undecomposed lustrous carbon producer in the moulding sand is crucial to the
incidence of the defect. Because the oxidation processes caused by the water combined in the
bentonite preclude determination of lustrous carbon production in the sand by established
methods, one determines the “active carbon”. The normal maximum amount should not exceed
0.6 %.

• In their studies, Bindernagel and others had already high-lighted defects due to lustrous carbon
inclusion. They recommend using the lowest possible amount of lustrous carbon producer and
believe that a lustrous carbon producing capacity of 0.4 % in the moulding sand is sufficient.

• In addition to lustrous carbon, soot can also be deposited during thermal decomposition. The
conditions which lead to increased soot formation have not yet been exhaustively investigated.
Deposited soots do not have a pronounced separating effect on the boundary between the metal
and the sand mould. Due to its high specific surface, soot is quickly dissolved by molten metal.
• Increasing the gas permeability of the moulding sand reduces the risk of lustrous carbon
inclusions. However, to achieve the same degree of surface finish, a greater proportion of
lustrous carbon producer must be employed.

• Considerable quantities of lustrous carbon can be produced from the cores (primarily Croning
and cold-box cores). The venting of the core gases is therefore very important. The drying of
such cores has been carried out at various times to avoid inclusions of lustrous carbon.

• Core sand flowing into the bentonite-bonded sand can also significantly increase the formation
of lustrous carbon. This must be particularly taken into consideration where cold-box cores are
used.

• Coarse sands are used for cold-box cores, which may require dressing of the mould parts. Naro
recommends a very thick application of dressing with a low proportion of volatile components.
In Germany, the use of water-based dressings to seal cores is becoming increasingly popular. It is
just as important to examine whether the pouring temperature can be raised where lustrous
carbon inclusions occur. Naro has found that lustrous carbon inclusions decrease with an
increase in pouring temperature. Rapid pouring also reduces the risk of inclusion, provided
laminar flow takes place. Where turbulence occurs, graphite films can become detached from the
silica surface and lead to inclusions.
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