Exercise Psychology

Day 26
Mental Health Aspects of
Exercise
 Stress Reduction Effects of Exercise:
Evidence and Mechanisms
 Reduced state and trait anxiety due to the
rhythmic-nature of exercise that stimulates an
inhibitory or relaxation site in the brain stem of
the CNS quieting cognitive activity associated
with anxiety
 Reduced depression due to the release of
biogenic amines (e.g., serotonin and
norephinephrine) in the brain and/or the social
interaction and increased self-efficacy from
exercise
Cognitive Benefits
Cognitive Benefits
 Cognitive Benefits
 Vascular Changes - increased cerebral blood flow
 Neurotrophic factors - increased neurotransmitter
levels (e.g., dopamine) in the brain
 Neural efficiency improved in the brain
 Fluid intelligence (reasoning or problem solving)
improved more than crystallized intelligence
(accumulated knowledge, word recognition, and
recall facts)
 Genetic basis for loss of cognitive functioning in the
elderly suggests physical inactivity may be more
detrimental to some than others
Goal Setting
 Goal Setting

 Progressive standards of success (short-

term goals) are set to increasingly
approximate a desired standard of
achievement (long-term goal)
 Goal setting is not a one-size-fits-all
endeavor
• Identify the client’s or athlete’s true
wants and needs
 Setting Goals for Feedback and
Reinforcement
 Long-term (L-T) goal provides a meaningful pursuit
for client/athlete
 Short-term (S-T) goals provide a strategy to achieve
the long-term goal via attainable steps
• Feedback is inherent in the completion of or
progress toward the S-T goal and leads to the
cognitive evaluation of success or failure
• An effective yet challenging goal is one that has
about a 50% chance of success
• Successful achievement of S-T goals leads to
behavioral reinforcement and the development
of self-esteem and self-efficacy
 Types of Goals
 L-T and S-T goals vary for each client/athlete;
higher or greater the L-T goal, more S-T
incremental goals are needed to reach L-T
goal
 Types of Goals Based on Personal Control
• Process goals - client/athlete has a high
degree of control over
• Outcome goals - client/athlete has little
control over
• Performance goals - fall in between in
relation to control
 Process Goals

 Effort given during a workout

 Exercise form and technique
 Positive attitude during workout

 Important for maintenance of exercise behavior

as success or goal accomplishment becomes
increasingly difficult
 Outcome Goals
 Progress or accomplishments gauged by
social comparison (winning or beating an
opponent)
 Can be highly arousing and induce great
intensity for competitive individuals
 Probability of success is less for outcome
goals compared to process goals as
outcome of success is dependent on the
performance of others and hence success
can not be guaranteed
 Performance Goals

 More difficult to achieve than process goals

 Typically stated in terms of a self-referenced
performance standard for the client/athlete
 Examples
• Increasing strength or cardiorespiratory
fitness level
• Reducing percent body fat
 Example of Setting a Performance Goal

 Average 3 to 5 recent 1-RM efforts in the bench

press
 Calculate the difference between the average 1-RM
and best 1-RM
 Add the difference to the best 1-RM to determine
performance goal
 Recent 1-RM efforts in bench press were 140 lb, 145
lb, 150 lb
 Average = 145 lb, best = 150 lb, difference = 5 lb, and
new performance goal is 155 lb
 Diversified Goal Setting

 Successful goal-setting program should include a

diverse combination of short-term and long-term
goals as well as process, outcome, and/or
performance goals depending on the client/athlete
 During the consultation and assessment session
with a new client/athlete, the trainer should
maintain focus on the client’s or athlete’s desired
goals and expected outcomes, and should develop
a sound plan of action
 Goal Orientations

 Clients or athletes who gauge their performance

or fitness improvement on the basis of previous
ability or fitness level are said to be tasked
involved and process and performance goals
would probably be best
 Clients or athletes who gauge their performance
or fitness improvement on comparison to the
performance of one or more others are said to
be ego-involved or other-referenced and process
and outcome goals would probably be best
 Tips for Effective Goal Setting

 Identify the client’s or athlete’s needs and desires

and plan long-term goals
 Identify steps and short-terms goals that will lead
to long-term achievement
 Initial goals may best be process goals
 Develop knowledge-based goals to compliment the
performance and/or fitness goals
 Gradually add in more aggressive and measurable
outcome and performance goals
 Sent a time frame for the attainment of measurable
outcome and performance goals
 Tips for Effective Goal Setting
 Agree on a way to determine if the program is
working toward the goals
 After setting goals, make sure client believes that the
goals are obtainable
 Examine the goals to make sure the goals are
compatible with one another
 Goals should be prioritized
 Attach a time frame to each goal and note if a goal is
not achieved by the assigned date
 Goals can and should be evaluated and adjusted at
regular intervals
Motivation
 Motivation
 Internal drive or neural process that
arouses and directs behavior
 Two dimensions of motivation
• Direction aspect that affects choices
about time and commitment to exercise
and other program goals
• Intensity with which choices are
pursued
 Reinforcement
 Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a
target or operant behavior will be repeated
 Positive reinforcement gives something to a
client/athlete in response to a behavior (e.g., social
approval or congratulations on a good workout)
 Negative reinforcement takes something away
from a client/athlete in response to a behavior
(something aversive is removed or taken away to
reward behavior such as not requiring clients or
athletes to rack their plates after a good workout is
completed)
 Punishment
 Punishment decreases the likelihood that
a target or operant behavior will be
repeated
 Positive punishment involves presentation
of something aversive such as criticism of
a client for poor exercise techniques
 Negative punishment involves removal of
something in order to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior such as removal
of a privilege because of poor exercise
techniques or failure to reach a goal
 Self Determination or Internalization
 Intrinsic motivation - engaging in a behavior for the
sense of enjoyment derived for it; true love for the
experience of exercise a sense of fun during its
performance
 Extrinsic motivation - engaged in a behavior to achieve
another goal or outcome; desire to be engaged in a
behavior to get an external reward
 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation lies on a continuum
 Intrinsic motivation typically results in greater exercise
adherence
 Important to know where a client or athlete falls on the
continuum of motivation
Major Points on the Continuum from External
to Internal Motivation of a Client/Athlete
 Amotivation - total lack of motivation
 External regulation - engagement in a behavior to
avoid punishment
 Introjected regulation - engagement in exercise as a
means to a valued end
 Identified regulation - follows trainer’s leadership
because it is perceived as beneficial instead of
personally initiating exercise behavior
 Integrated regulation - personally values exercise
behavior, internalizes it, and freely engages in it;
client/athlete and trainer agree on the goals of the
client
 Effect of Rewards
 External rewards can play a role in
increasing intrinsic motivation and
exercise adherence
 Rewards can also reduce intrinsic
motivation if they are “controlling”
 Rewards can be viewed as “controlling” if
the recipient perceives a contingency or
connection between the behavior and the
reward; removal of the reward may
decrease the likelihood of the intended
behavior occurring
When to Intervene with Motivational Efforts
 The transtheoretical model helps identify the
stage of readiness for exercise participation
 By identifying a client’s or athlete’s stage of
readiness, the trainer can apply the
appropriate processes for change or
interventions in order to move the client or
athlete to the next level with the ultimate
goals of action and maintenance
 Stage of Readiness of a Client or Athlete
 Precontemplation - no thought or intention of
becoming physically active
 Contemplation - thinks about and intends to
become physically active; not physically active yet
 Preparation - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-
intensity physical activity one day per week
 Action - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-
intensity physical activity five or more days per
week, but has done so for less than six months
 Maintenance - accumulates 30 minutes of
moderate-intensity physical activity five or more
days per week for more than six months
 Self-Efficacy: Building Confidence
 Performance accomplishments or successful
performance of a behavior
 Modeling effects or observing others perform a
target behavior enhances imitative behavior
 Verbal persuasion from a respected source
 Before or during exercise physiological arousal/self-
belief can increase self-efficacy whereas
anxiety/disbelief can decrease self-efficacy
 Achieving success has more impact than anything
else on raising self-efficacy
Methods to Motivate a Client
 Minimizing Procrastination
 Almost everyone believes health and fitness are
desirable attributes, but only a small percentage of
the population commits to and maintains a healthy,
exercise lifestyle
 Procrastination may occur if a client/athlete
believes that there are too many options in diets,
exercises, devices, training methods, etc
 Trainers need to provide a decisive leadership role
through the many options so that a client/athlete is
not left in a frozen or indecisive state trying to
decide in the perceived pain outweighs the
potential benefits
 Identifying False Beliefs
 Because of the many ‘quick fixes’ positioned
as solutions, clients/athletes may have
allowed false beliefs and information into
their belief system
 False beliefs and information need to be
eliminated before a trainer can install new
empowering beliefs and information
 An effective line of communication between
the trainer and client/athlete must be
established through which education and
reasoning can be effectively communicated
and instilled
Identifying and Modifying Self Talk
‘His or Her Internal Voice’

 Positive self talk can be very motivating

 Negative self talk makes it almost impossible
for a client/athlete to accept even the most
positively directed affirmations
 Positive affirmations will be more effective if
the client/athlete changes the negative
self-talk first
 Modifying Self Talk
 Ask client/athlete to notice and think about the
types of his/her self-talk self talk during the day
 Ask the client/athlete to identify his/her self talk
before and during training sessions
 Have client/athlete write down negative self talk on
the left side of a piece of paper and on the right side
how the self talk could be changed to be supportive
or motivating instead
 Have client recite and rehearse the new, positive
affirmations
 External encouragement will be more effective if
the client/athlete changes his/her self-talk first
 Motivational Strategies
 Define your goals
 Set realistic goals
 Exercise with a group
 Exercise with a buddy
 Recruit the support of significant others
 Associate with other exercisers
 Schedule a definite time and place for exercise
 Build on successful experiences
 Exercise to music
 Participate in a variety of activities
 Keep a progress chart or daily log
Other Psychological Tools for
Performance Enhancement
 Mental Imagery

 A cognitive psychological skill in which

the client/athlete uses all of the senses to
create a mental experience of the
performance
 The client/athlete stimulates reality by
mentally rehearsing a movement and/or
imagining visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
olfactory, and even exertional cues
 Hypnosis

 An induced state of hyper-suggestibility

 Positive suggestions relating to a client’s
or athlete’s performance potential are
planted in the subconscious mind
 Systematic Desensitization
 A technique that helps a client/athlete
initially confront or reduce fears, which
may have arisen from an association of
previously neutral stimuli with a stressful
event(s)
 Involves counter-conditioning in which an
athlete replaces a fear response to various
cues with a relaxation response
 Physical Relaxation Techniques

 Diaphragmatic breathing - involves belly

breathing which focuses on breath (a
controllable aspect of physiology) to clear
the mind and therefore increase attentional
capacity
 Physical Relaxation Techniques

 Progressive muscular relaxation - a

somatopsychic technique by which
psychological and physical arousal are
self-regulated through the control of
muscular tension; involves performance of a
series of alternate muscular tensing and
relaxing phases in which the individual
becomes aware of somatic tension and learns
to control it
 Physical Relaxation Techniques

 Autogenic training - an attentional state that

focuses on the sense of warmth and
heaviness of a particular limb or muscle
group shifting autonomic neural processes
from sympathetic dominance to
parasympathetic dominance
 References

 Earle and Baechle - Chapter 8

 Course Reader - Section 32

QUESTIONS?

COMMENTS?
Identifying and Modifying Self Talk