Digital Logic Design

Lecture 2

More Number Systems/Complements

1
 Understanding Octal Numbers

° Octal numbers are made of octal digits: (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)

° How many items does an octal number represent?
• (4536)8 = 4x83 + 5x82 + 3x81 + 6x80 = (1362)10

° What about fractions?

• (465.27)8 = 4x82 + 6x81 + 5x80 + 2x8-1 + 7x8-2

° Octal numbers don’t use digits 8 or 9

° Who would use octal number, anyway?

2
 Understanding Binary Numbers

° Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits):

• 0 and 1

° How many items does an binary number represent?

• (1011)2 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 = (11)10

° What about fractions?

• (110.10)2 = 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 0x2-2

° Groups of eight bits are called a byte

• (11001001) 2

° Groups of four bits are called a nibble.

• (1101) 2

3
Why Use Binary Numbers?
° Easy to represent 0 and 1 using
electrical values.
° Possible to tolerate noise.
° Easy to transmit data
° Easy to build binary circuits.
AND Gate

1
0
0

4
 001 = 1
Binary
010 = 2
011 = 3
In Binary, there are only 0’s and 1’s. These numbers are called “Base-2” ( Example: 0102)

100 = 4 We count in “Base-10”

101 = 5 (0 to 9)
° Binary number has base 2
Decimal

110 = 6
° Each digit is one of two numbers:
111 = 7 0 and 1
Binary to

° Each digit is called a bit

° Eight binary bits make a byte
° All 256 possible values of a byte
can be represented using 2 digits
5
 Binary as a Voltage

° Voltages are used to represent logic values:

° A voltage present (called Vcc or Vdd) = 1

° Zero Volts or ground (called gnd or Vss) = 0

A simple switch can provide a logic high or a logic low.

6
 A Simple Switch

° Here is a simple switch used to provide a logic value:

Vcc Vcc

Vcc, or 1 Gnd, or 0

There are other ways to connect a switch.

7
Binary digits

Bit: single binary digit

Byte: 8 binary digits

Bit

100101112
Radix

Byte

8
 Conversion Between Number Bases

Octal(base 8)

Decimal(base 10) Binary(base 2)

Hexadecimal
° (base16)
Learn to convert between bases.
° Already demonstrated how to convert from
binary to decimal.
° Hexadecimal described in next section

9
Number Systems

Used by Used in
System Base Symbols humans? computers?
Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7 No No
Hexa- 16 0, 1, … 9, No No
decimal A, B, … F

10
Conversion Among Bases

The possibilities:

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

11
 Convert an Integer from Decimal to Another Base

For each digit position:

1. Divide decimal number by the base (e.g. 2)
2. The remainder is the lowest-order digit
3. Repeat first two steps until no divisor remains.
Example for (13)10:
Integer Remainder Coefficient
Quotient
13/2 = 6 + 1 a0 = 1
6/2 = 3 + 0 a1 = 0
3/2 = 1 + 1 a2 = 1
1/2 = 0 + a3 = 1

Answer (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

12
 Convert an Fraction from Decimal to Another Base

For each digit position:

1. Multiply decimal number by the base (e.g. 2)
2. The integer is the highest-order digit
3. Repeat first two steps until fraction becomes zero.
Example for (0.625)10:
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 x 2 = 1 + 0.25 a -1 = 1
0.250 x 2 = 0 + 0.50 a -2 = 0
0.500 x 2 = 1 + 0 a -3 = 1

Answer (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3 )2 = (0.101)2

13
The Growth of Binary Numbers
n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512

2 22=4 10 210=1024

3 23=8 11 211=2048

4 24=16 12 212=4096

5 25=32 20 220=1M Mega

Giga
6 26=64 30 230=1G

Tera
7 2 =128
7
40 2 =1T
40

14
Binary Addition

° Binary addition is very simple.

° This is best shown in an example of adding two binary
numbers…

1 1 1 1 1 1 carries
1 1 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1
---------------------
1 0 1 0 1 0 0

15
Binary Subtraction

° We can also perform subtraction (with borrows in place of carries).

° Let’s subtract (10111)2 from (1001101)2…

1 10 borrows
0 10 10 0 0 10

1 0
0 1 1 0 1
- 1 0 1 1 1
------------------------
1 1 0 1 1 0

16
 Binary Multiplication

° Binary multiplication is much the same as decimal

multiplication, except that the multiplication operations
are much simpler…

1 0 1
1 1
X 1 0 1 0
-----------------------
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
-----------------------
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
17
 Convert an Integer from Decimal to Octal

For each digit position:

1. Divide decimal number by the base (8)
2. The remainder is the lowest-order digit
3. Repeat first two steps until no divisor remains.
Example for (175)10:
Integer Remainder Coefficient
Quotient
175/8 = 21 + 7/8 a0 = 7
21/8 = 2 + 5/8 a1 = 5
2/8 = 0 + 2/8 a2 = 2

Answer (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)2 = (257)8

18
 Convert an Fraction from Decimal to Octal

For each digit position:

1. Multiply decimal number by the base (e.g. 8)
2. The integer is the highest-order digit
3. Repeat first two steps until fraction becomes zero.
Example for (0.3125)10:
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 x 8 = 2 + 5 a -1 = 2
0.5000 x 8 = 4 + 0 a -2 = 4

Answer (0.3125)10 = (0.24)8

19
 Overview

° Hexadecimal numbers
• Related to binary and octal numbers

° Conversion between hexadecimal, octal and binary

° Value ranges of numbers
° Representing positive and negative numbers
° Creating the complement of a number
• Make a positive number negative (and vice versa)

° Why binary?

20
 Understanding Binary Numbers

° Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits):

• 0 and 1

° How many items does an binary number represent?

• (1011)2 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 = (11)10

° What about fractions?

• (110.10)2 = 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 0x2-2

° Groups of eight bits are called a byte

• (11001001) 2

° Groups of four bits are called a nibble.

• (1101) 2
21
 Understanding Hexadecimal Numbers

° Hexadecimal numbers are made of 16 digits:

• (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, F)

° How many items does an hex number represent?

• (3A9F)16 = 3x163 + 10x162 + 9x161 + 15x160 = 1499910

° What about fractions?

• (2D3.5)16 = 2x162 + 13x161 + 3x160 + 5x16-1 = 723.312510

° Note that each hexadecimal digit can be represented with four

bits.
• (1110) 2 = (E)16

° Groups of four bits are called a nibble.

• (1110) 2 22
Putting It All Together

° Binary, octal, and

hexadecimal similar
° Easy to build circuits to
operate on these
representations
° Possible to convert
between the three formats

23
Converting Between Base 16 and Base 2

3A9F16 = 0011 1010 1001 11112

3 A 9 F

° Conversion is easy!
 Determine 4-bit value for each hex digit
° Note that there are 24 = 16 different values of four bits
° Easier to read and write in hexadecimal.
° Representations are equivalent!

24
Converting Between Base 16 and Base 8

3A9F16 = 0011 1010 1001 11112

3 A 9 F

352378 = 011 101 010 011 1112

3 5 2 3 7

1. Convert from Base 16 to Base 2

2. Regroup bits into groups of three starting from right
3. Ignore leading zeros
4. Each group of three bits forms an octal digit.
25
 Number systems (Octal
( Numbers)
Octal Numbers:
[Base 8],[ 0,1,3,4,5,6,7]

Octal to Decimal Conversion:

Example:-
°Octal number has base 8
[2374]8 = [ ? ]10 °Each digit is a number from 0 to 7

=4×8 +7×8 +3×8 +2×8

0 1 2 3 °Each digit represents 3 binary bits
°Was used in early computing, but was replaced by hexadecimal

=[1276]10

26
 Number systems (Octal
( Numbers)

Decimal to Octal Conversion:

The Division: 359 Quotient Reminder
 44 7
8
[359]10 = [ ? ]8 44
5 4
By using the division system:
8
5 5
0
8

5 4 7
27
 Number systems (Octal
( Numbers)

Binary to Octal Conversion:

Example:-
[110101]2 = [ ? ]8
Here we will take 3 bits and convert it from binary to decimal
by using the decimal to binary truth table:

Binary Decimal
110 6

101 5
110 101 = (65)8

{
{
6 5

28
 Number systems (Octal
( Numbers)

Octal to Binary Conversion:

Example:-
[13]8 = [ ? ]2
Here we will convert each decimal digit from decimal to binary
(3 bits) using the decimal to binary truth table:

Binary Decimal
1 001

3 011
(13)8 = (001011)2

29
 Radix Based Conversion (Example)

° Convert 1234 decimal into octal

Radix 8 Answer
8 1234 
8 154 2
Divide
8 19 2 23228
by radix 8
  2 3

30
Octals

• Converting to decimal from octal:

– Evaluate the power series
• Example

2 1 0
2 0 78

2*8 2 + 0*81 + 7*80

= 13510
31
 Hexadecimal
° Hexadecimal is used to simplify dealing with large binary values:
• Base-16, or Hexadecimal, has 16 characters: 0-9, A-F
• Represent a 4-bit binary value: 00002 (0) to 11112 (F)
• Easier than using ones and zeros for large binary values
• Commonly used in computer applications

° Examples:
• 11002 = 1210 = C16
• 1010 0110 1100 00102 = A6 C216
Hex values can be followed by an “H” to indicate base-16. Example: A6 C2 H

32
Hex Values in Computers

33
Decimal to Hexadecimal
Decimal Hex
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F
34
Conversion Binary to Hexadecimal

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1010 = 10 1100 = 12 0001 = 1 0110 = 6

A C 1 6

35
 Radix Based Conversion (Example)

° Convert 1234 decimal into hexadecimal

Radix 16 Answer
16 1234 
Divide
16 77 2
4D216
by radix 16   4 D

36
Hexadecimals – Base 16

• Converting to decimal from hex:

– Evaluate the power series
• Example

2 1 0
2 E A 16

2*16 2 + 14*161 + 10*160

= 74610
37
 Octal to Hex Conversion

 To convert between the Octal and Hexadecimal numbering

systems
 Convert from one system to binary first
 Then convert from binary to the new numbering system

38
 Hex to Octal Conversion
Ex : Convert E8A16 to octal
First convert the hex to binary:
1110 1000 10102

111 010 001 010 and re-group by 3 bits

(starting on the right)
Then convert the binary to octal:
7 2 1 2

39
 Octal to Hex Conversion
Ex : Convert 7528 to hex
First convert the octal to binary:
111 101 010re-group
2 by 4 bits

0001 1110 1010 (add leading zeros)

Then convert the binary to hex:
1 E A

So 7528 = 1EA16
40
Octal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

41
Octal to Hexadecimal

° Technique
• Use binary as an intermediary

42
Example

10768 = ?16
1 0 7 6

001 000 111 110

2 3 E

10768 = 23E16

43
Hexadecimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

44
Hexadecimal to Octal

° Technique
• Use binary as an intermediary

45
Example

1F0C16 = ?8
1 F 0 C

0001 1111 0000 1100

1 7 4 1 4

1F0C16 = 174148

46
 Example: Hex → Octal
Example:

° Convert the hexadecimal number 5AH into its octal

equivalent.
Solution:

° First convert the hexadecimal number into its decimal

equivalent, then convert the decimal number into its octal
equivalent.
5 A 8 90
11
r  2  LSB
161 160
1
16 1
8 11 r 3

0
80 + 10 = 9010 8 1 r  1  MSB

5AH = 1328
47
Fractions (Example)

48
Fractions (Example)

49
Radix Based Conversion (Example)

° Convert 0.6875 decimal into binary

Radix 2
Multiply by radix 2

Fraction Radix Total (Fraction x Radix) Integer Fraction

0.6875 2 1.375 1 0.375
0.375 2 0.75 0 0.75
0.75 2 1.5 1 0.5
0.5 2 1 1 0
Answer 0.10112

50
Radix Based Conversion (Example)

° Convert 0.51310 to base 16 (up to 4 fractional point)

Radix 16 Multiply by radix 16

Fraction Radix Total (Fraction x Radix) Integer Fraction

0.513 16 8.208 8 0.208
0.208 16 3.328 3 0.328
0.328 16 5.248 5 0.248
0.248 16 3.968 3 0.968

Answer 0.835316

51
°Lecture 03

°2’s Complement

52
 How To Represent Signed Numbers
• Plus and minus sign used for decimal numbers: 25
(or +25), -16, etc.
• For computers, desirable to represent everything as
bits.
• Three types of signed binary number representations:
signed magnitude, 1’s complement, 2’s complement.
• In each case: left-most bit indicates sign: positive (0)
or negative (1).
Consider signed magnitude:
000011002 = 1210 100011002 = -1210

Sign bit Magnitude Sign bit Magnitude

53
 Complement
° It has already been studied that
° subtracting one number from another is the same as making one
number negative and just adding them.
° We know how to create negative numbers in the binary number
system.
° How to perform 2’s complement process.
° How the 2’s complement process can be use to add (and subtract)
binary numbers.
° Digital electronics requires frequent addition and subtraction of
numbers. You know how to design an adder, but what about a
subtracter?
° A subtracter is not needed with the 2’s complement process. The 2’s
complement process allows you to easily convert a positive number54
 3-Digit Decimal
A bicycle odometer with only three
digits is an example of a fixed-
999
length decimal number system. forward (+)
998

The problem is that without a 997

negative sign, you cannot tell a +998

001
from a -2 (also a 998). Did you ride
000
forward for 998 miles or backward
999
for 2 miles?
998

Note: Car odometers do not work this

002
way. 001
backward (-)

55
 Negative Decimal
+499 499
How do we represent negative pos(+)
+498 498
numbers in this 3-digit decimal
+497 497
number system without using a
sign?
+001 001

Cut the number system in half. 000 000

Use 001 – 499 to indicate positive -001 999

numbers. -002 998

Use 500 – 999 to indicate negative -499 501

numbers. -500 500
neg(-)

Notice that 000 is not positive or

negative.
56
3-Digit Decimal (Examples)

3 003 6 006
+ 2 + 002 + (-3) + 997
5 005 3 1003
Disregard
Overflow

(-5) 995 (-2) 998

+ 2 + 002 + (-3) + 997
(-3) 997 (-5) 1995
Disregard
Overflow

It Works!
57
 Complex Problem

° The previous examples demonstrate that this

process works, but how do we easily convert a
number into its negative equivalent?
° In the examples, converting the negative numbers
into the 3-digit decimal number system was fairly
easy. To convert the (-3), you simply counted
backward from 1000 (i.e., 999, 998, 997).
° This process is not as easy for large numbers (e.g.,
-214 is 786). How did we determine this?
° To convert a large negative number, you can use the
10’s Complement Process.

58
Complement

The 10’s Complement process uses base-10 (decimal)

numbers. Later, when we’re working with base-2
(binary) numbers, you will see that the 2’s
Complement process works in the same way.
First, complement all of the digits in a number.
• A digit’s complement is the number you add to the digit to
make it equal to the largest digit in the base (i.e., 9 for
decimal). The complement of 0 is 9, 1 is 8, 2 is 7, etc.
Second, add 1.
• Without this step, our number system would have two
zeroes (+0 & -0), which no number system has.

59
10’s Complement Examples

Example #1
-003 Complement Digits

996
+1 Add 1
997
Example #2
-214
Complement Digits

785
+1 Add 1
60
 One’s Complement Representation
• The one’s complement of a binary number involves
inverting all bits.
• 1’s comp of 00110011 is 11001100
• 1’s comp of 10101010 is 01010101
• For an n bit number N the 1’s complement is (2n-1) –
N.
• Called diminished radix complement by Mano since
1’s complement for base (radix 2).
• To 00001100
find negative
= 12 of 1’s complement number take the
11110011 = -12
1’s complement.
2 10 2 10

Sign bit Magnitude Sign bit Magnitude

61
 Two’s Complement Representation
• The two’s complement of a binary number involves
inverting all bits and adding 1.
• 2’s comp of 00110011 is 11001101
• 2’s comp of 10101010 is 01010110
• For an n bit number N the 2’s complement is (2n-1) – N
+ 1.
• Called radix complement by Mano since 2’s
complement for base (radix 2).
• To 00001100
find negative
= 12 of 2’s complement number take the
11110100 = -12
2’s complement.
2 10 2 10

Sign bit Magnitude Sign bit Magnitude

62
Two’s Complement Shortcuts
° Algorithm 1 – Simply complement each bit and then add 1
to the result.
• Finding the 2’s complement of (01100101)2 and of its 2’s complement…
N = 01100101 [N] = 10011011
10011010 01100100
+ 1 + 1
--------------- ---------------
10011011 01100101

° Algorithm 2 – Starting with the least significant bit, copy

all of the bits up to and including the first 1 bit and then
complementing the remaining bits.
• N =01100101
[N] = 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
63
Finite Number Representation

° Machines that use 2’s complement arithmetic can

represent integers in the range
-2n-1 <= N <= 2n-1-1
where n is the number of bits available for representing N.
Note that 2n-1-1 = (011..11)2 and –2n-1 = (100..00)2
o For 2’s complement more negative numbers than positive.
o For 1’s complement two representations for zero.
o For an n bit number in base (radix) z there are zn different
unsigned values.
(0, 1, …zn-1)
64
 1’s Complement Addition
° Using 1’s complement numbers, adding numbers is easy.
° For example, suppose we wish to add +(1100)2 and
+(0001)2.
° Let’s compute (12)10 + (1)10.
• (12)10 = +(1100)2 = 011002 in 1’s comp.
• (1)10 = +(0001)2 = 000012 in 1’s comp. 0 1 1 0 0
Add
+ 0 0 0 0 1
Step 1: Add binary numbers
Step 2: Add carry to low-order bit --------------
Add carry 0 0 1 1 0 1
0
Final
Result --------------
0 1 1 0 1
65
 1’s Complement Subtraction
° Using 1’s complement numbers, subtracting numbers is
also easy.
° For example, suppose we wish to subtract +(0001)2 from
+(1100)2. 0 1 1 0 0
° Let’s compute (12)10 - (1)10. - 0 0 0 0 1
• (12) = +(1100) = 01100 in 1’s comp.
--------------
10 2 2 1’s comp

• (-1)10 = -(0001)2 = 111102 in 1’s comp.

Step 1: Take 1’s complement of 2nd operand
Step 2: Add binary numbers
Add 0 1 1 0 0
Step 3: Add carry to low order bit
+ 1 1 1 1 0
Add carry
--------------
1 0 1 0 1 0
Final
Result 1
--------------
66
 2’s Complement Addition
° Using 2’s complement numbers, adding numbers is easy.
° For example, suppose we wish to add +(1100)2 and
+(0001)2.
° Let’s compute (12)10 + (1)10.
• (12)10 = +(1100)2 = 011002 in 2’s comp.
• (1)10 = +(0001)2 = 000012 in 2’s comp. 0 1 1 0 0
Add
Step 1: Add binary numbers
+ 0 0 0 0 1
Step 2: Ignore carry bit Final --------------
Result
0 0 1 1 0 1

Ignore

67
 2’s Complement Subtraction
° Using 2’s complement numbers, follow steps for
subtraction
° For example, suppose we wish to subtract +(0001)2 from
+(1100)2. 0 1 1 0 0
° Let’s compute (12)10 - (1)10. - 0 0 0 0 1
• (12) = +(1100) = 01100 in 2’s comp.
--------------
10 2 2 2’s comp

• (-1)10 = -(0001)2 = 111112 in 2’s comp.

Step 1: Take 2’s complement of 2nd operand
Step 2: Add binary numbers
Add 0 1 1 0 0
Step 3: Ignore carry bit
Final + 1 1 1 1 1
Result
--------------
1 0 1 0 1 1
Ignore
Carry

68
2’s Complement Subtraction: Example #2

° Let’s compute (13)10 – (5)10.

• (13)10 = +(1101)2 = (01101)2
• (-5)10 = -(0101)2 = (11011)2

° Adding these two 5-bit codes…

0 1 1 0 1
carry + 1 1 0 1 1
--------------
10 1 0 0 0

° Discarding the carry bit, the sign bit is seen to be zero,

indicating a correct result. Indeed,
(01000)2 = +(1000)2 = +(8)10. 69
2’s Complement Subtraction: Example #3
° Let’s compute (5)10 – (12)10.
• (-12)10 = -(1100)2 = (10100)2
• (5)10 = +(0101)2 = (00101)2

° Adding these two 5-bit codes…

0 0 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 0 0
--------------
1 1 0 0 1

° Here, there is no carry bit and the sign bit is 1. This

indicates a negative result, which is what we expect.
(11001)2 = -(7)10.
70
1’s Complement

71
 2’s Complement

• 1s complement with negative numbers shifted one position

clockwise
• Only one representation for 0
• One more negative number than positive number
• High-order bit can act as sign bit

72
 Overflow
° Overflow conditions
° Add two positive numbers to get a negative number
° Add two negative numbers to get a positive number

73
Two’s Complement Number System

 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
0
- 1 1
0000
1111 0001 2
- 2
1110 0010

- 3 3
1101 0011

- 4 4
1100 0100

5
1011 0101
- 5

1010 0110
- 6 6
1001 1000 0111
- 7 - 7
8 74
 Summary

° Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits)

° Binary and octal number systems
° Conversion between number systems
° Addition, subtraction, and multiplication in binary

75
 Summary

° Binary numbers can also be represented in octal and

hexadecimal
° Easy to convert between binary, octal, and hexadecimal
° Signed numbers represented in signed magnitude, 1’s
complement, and 2’s complement
° 2’s complement most important (only 1 representation for zero).
° Important to understand treatment of sign bit for 1’s and 2’s
complement.

76