 The first reference to an engine can be traced back to

100 AD to a Greek physicist and mathematical genius,

Heros of Alexandria, who described the principle of a
basic steam engine.
 In 1673 the Netherlands physicist Christiaan Huygens
built the first internal combustion engine.
 This engine ran on gunpowder.
 In Huygens’s design the power is generated by
atmospheric pressure on the piston.
 It was not a practical engine because of the
gunpowder.
 In 1698 a British inventor, Thomas Savery, used the design
of Papin and developed a pump engine without a piston.
 This engine could pump water.
 In 1705 Thomas Newcomen built an improved steam engine
with a piston that operated in a cylinder.
 He used the engine to pump water.
 Later James Watt registered a patent on a steam engine
with a crankshaft.
 This engine converted the up and down motion into a rotary
motion.
 In 1782 Watt built his first double-action steam engine.
 The power was generated by steam and not by atmospheric
pressure.
 In 1839 the American Isaac Babbitt invented
a material for bearings.
 This material allowed engines to run at high
speeds.
 On 9 May 1876 the public witnessed Nikolaus
August Otto’s new four-stroke engine.
 It produced 3 h.p. at 180 r.p.m. and was
known as the ‘Otto Cycle’ engine.
 In 1876 the American George Brayton built the
first two-stroke engine.
 Sir Dugald Clerk also invented a two-stroke
engine, an improvement on Brayton’s engine.
 Clerk is named the father of the two-stroke
engine.
 In 1885 Gottlieb Daimler built the first motor
bike.
 Later in that year he built the first motor boat
and the first motor coach.
 Daimler and Benz are often called the
fathers of the motor vehicle.
 After 14 years of contemplation, in
1893, Rudolf Diesel patented the first
diesel engine.
 It was manufactured by the engineering
firm, Krupps.
 The four-stroke engine is used in the
following:
 motor cars
 motor bikes
 boats
 trucks
 lifting equipment
 water pumps
 generators.
 Since the operation of
each cylinder in a
multi-cylinder engine is
identical, we will focus
only on a single-
cylinder engine.
 From this knowledge
you will understand the
operation of all four-
stroke petrol engines.
 The engine comprises a cylinder block in which a
cylinder is bored to accommodate the piston and
piston rings.
 A crankshaft is mounted on one side of the cylinder
block which is closed in an oil pan/sump.
 The included space is called the crankcase.
 The oil pan contains a specified quantity of engine
lubricating oil.
 The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a
connecting rod and a gudgeon pin.
 Sealing off the space above the piston on the other side of
the cylinder, is a cylinder head.
 The free volume in the cylinder when the piston is at the
extreme top in the cylinder is called the combustion
chamber.
 The cylinder head contains the intake and exhaust valves.
 A valve mechanism opens and closes the valves.
 This valve mechanism is activated by the camshaft which is
driven by the crankshaft at half-crankshaft speed.
 An intake manifold with a carburettor is connected to the
intake port which leads to the intake valve and hence the
cylinder, while the exhaust manifold is connected to the
exhaust port.
You must know these terms and their abbreviations:
 Top Dead Centre (t.d.c.) – when the piston is at the end of
the upward stroke, that is the highest point which the piston
can reach in the cylinder
 bottom dead centre (b.d.c.) – when the piston is at the end of
the downward stroke, that is the lowest point which the piston
can reach in the cylinder
 a stroke – the maximum distance of piston movement between
extreme points; these extreme points are t.d.c. and b.d.c. and
the crankshaft turns through 180°
 a cycle – the four strokes of the piston; one cycle is completed
during two crankshaft revolutions (720°)and one camshaft
revolution.
 The piston moves from t.d.c. toward b.d.c.
 When the piston descends from t.d.c., the intake
valve starts opening.
 With the exhaust valve closed during the stroke, a
partial vacuum or depression is created in the
cylinder above the piston.
 Atmospheric pressure fills this partial vacuum and,
in doing so, passes through the carburettor barrel.
 In the carburettor barrel petrol is mixed with air.
 This air-fuel mixture fills the cylinder via the intake
manifold and past the open intake valve.
 Just after the piston reaches b.d.c., the intake valve
is closed.
 Both the intake valve and the exhaust valve
remain closed during this stroke and the
piston moves from b.d.c. to t.d.c.
 The petrol mixture is compressed in the
relatively small combustion chamber.
 Just before the piston reaches t.d.c., a high
tension spark is introduced into the
combustion chamber by means of the
sparkplug and the petrol mixture is ignited.
 Both valves still remain closed and as a result of
ignition, combustion of the petrol mixture takes
place rapidly.
 High temperatures are developed as a result of
this combustion and cause the gases to expand.
 This expansion exerts considerable pressure on
the piston and the force is transmitted to the
crankshaft via the connecting rod, thereby giving
a rotary motion (rotation) to the crankshaft.
 As the piston reaches b.d.c., the exhaust valve is opened.
 The crankshaft rotates as a result of momentum in the
crankshaft, assisted by the flywheel, and the piston moves from
b.d.c. to t.d.c.
 The piston forces out the burnt gases past the open exhaust
valve to the exhaust manifold from where it is fed to the
atmosphere by pipes.
 When the piston reaches t.d.c., the engine is ready to start the
following intake stroke and cycle.
 A running engine emits the exhaust gas,
carbon monoxide.
 The gas is very harmful to both people and
the environment.
 Leaded petrol has now been phased out and
more and more cars have catalytic converters
that convert the carbon monoxide to less
harmful carbon dioxide.
Engcycle.wmv
 The two-stroke principle was invented by Sir
Dugald Clerk in 1880.
 Still today two-stroke engines are widely used
by motorcycles, lawn mowers and
motorboats.
 The construction of this engine is similar to that of the four-stroke petrol
engine.
 However, the three-port two-stroke engine does not have valves.
 Instead there are the intake port, the exhaust port and the transfer port,
all of which are closed and opened by the moving piston.
 The transfer port has no direct connection with the atmosphere, but
connects the crankcase with the cylinder above the piston.
 A second important feature is the crankcase which is air-tight and which
contains no lubricating oil as the oil is added to the petrol.
 A third feature is the piston crown; its design promotes scavenging of the
cylinder. (Scavenging occurs when the new gases from the bypass port
push the burnt gases out the outlet port and so clean the cylinder.)
 Note that the transfer port is situated on one side of the cylinder while the
intake and exhaust ports are on the opposite side of the cylinder.
 The concepts, t.d.c., b.d.c. and stroke, are the same
as with the four-stroke petrol engine.
 A cycle, however, is completed during only two piston
strokes.
 During this cycle, the crankshaft completes one
revolution, or 360°.
 The two phases of the cycle are completed during
two piston strokes.
 Scavenging is the most important aspect of the two-
stroke petrol engine.
 Because the direct pumping action of the piston
cannot be used in this case, the burnt gases are
scavenged by the incoming petrol mixture.
 With the piston at b.d.c., the intake port is closed and the
other two ports open.
 At this stage, the cylinder above the piston is filled with the
petrol mixture.
 During ‘piston-travel’ from b.d.c. to t.d.c., the transfer port is
first closed by the piston and then the exhaust port.
 As the piston ascends, the petrol mixture is compressed in
the combustion chamber while a vacuum is created in the
crankcase.
 With the upward movement of the piston, the intake port is
opened and the petrol mixture fills the vacuum in the
crankcase.
 Just before the piston reaches t.d.c., the compressed petrol
mixture is ignited by a high tension spark.
 After ignition of the petrol mixture, combustion causes high
temperatures to develop, and as a result the gases expand.
 These expanding gases force the piston towards b.d.c. and a
powerful rotational movement is given to the crankshaft.
 As the piston moves towards b.d.c., the intake port is closed
and the petrol mixture is compressed in the crankcase.
 With the further movement of the piston, the exhaust port is
opened first and the burnt gases start escaping.
 Just after this the transfer port is opened and the compressed
petrol mixture in the crankcase enters the cylinder under
pressure and assists in driving out the burnt gases.
 Note that the piston crown is designed
specially so that the incoming petrol mixture
is deflected.
 This design is necessary to prevent the petrol
mixture from escaping together with the burnt
gases.
 If this doesn’t happen, the petrol mixture will
be wasted to a large extent while the upper
section of the cylinder will still be filled with
burnt gases.
 PG. 174
 Compression ignition (C.I.) engines are often called diesel
engines.
 These engines are named after the German engineer, Rudolf
Diesel.
 In 1892 he registered a patent on an engine that relied on the
heat generated during compression to ignite a fuel of coal dust.
 This fuel was forced into the cylinder by air pressure at the end
of the stroke.
 A British engineer, Herbert Ackroyd-Stuart, improved the C.I.
Engine.
 His version involved the induction and compression of air and
the timed injection of liquid by a pump.
 Diesel fuel is crude oil which has not been refined to
the extent petrol has, and is therefore cheaper to
manufacture.
 C.I. engines operate as a result of fuel burning in the
cylinder which is dependent on the amount of heat
generated by the burning fuel.
 This heat energy is then converted into useful work.
 The construction of the C.I. Engine is the same as
that of the spark-ignition engine and can also be
divided into the four-stroke and the two-stroke type.
 The engine consists mainly of the following components
(similar to petrol engine):
 cylinder – an integral part of the cylinder block
 piston – has a perfect fit in the cylinder
 connecting rod – coupled to the piston by means of a
gudgeon pin and which facilitates a hinge action
 crankshaft – into which the connecting rod is coupled
by the big-end bearing
 main bearings – keep the crankshaft in position in the
cylinder block and at the same time allow it to rotate
freely
 It also consists of:
 crankshaft timing gear – fitted to the front end of
the crankshaft
 camshaft – housed in the camshaft bearings in
the cylinder block
 valve mechanism – consisting of a cam follower,
push rod, rocker and
 a valve kept closed by a stiff spring. For each
cylinder, two of each of the above components
are required – one set for the intake function, and
one set for the outlet function.
 It is similar to the petrol engine, except that :
1. The compression ratio is approximately 20:1
compared to a petrol engine which has a
compression ratio of about 10:1.
2. On the compression stroke the fuel is injected
and mixes with the compressed air a few
degrees before the piston reaches t.d.c..
3. The mixture is ignited by the high temperature
that results from the higher pressure of the
compressed air/fuel on the compression stroke.
Types of two-stroke C.I. Engine
1. Engines with ports in the bottom end of the cylinder
which are used to scavenge exhaust gases and admit the
fresh air charge.
2. Engines where the intake port is in the bottom end of the
cylinder and the exhaust port is in the cylinder head. The
closing and opening of the exhaust port in this case is
controlled by poppet valves.
 All two-stoke C.I. engines are fitted with blowers which force
pure air into the cylinder.
 These engines complete their full working cycle within two
strokes of the piston.
 The cylinder is designed with ports at the side of
the cylinder, more or less at the end of the stroke of
the piston.
 The intake ports are designed so that the fresh air
charge is directed in a spiral movement towards the
cylinder head.
 The exhaust port is cut so that it will open first as
the piston moves downwards on its stroke.
 Driven by the engine, a blower forces air under
pressure into the cylinder when the intake port is
uncovered by the piston.
 A few degrees before the piston reaches
t.d.c., fuel is injected and mixes with the
compressed air after which it is ignited.
 Combustion follows ignition and as a result
the temperature is raised which causes the
gases to expand.
 The expanding gases force the piston
downwards in the cylinder.
 When the piston has moved through three-quarters of
its downward stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered.
 The spent gases, still under pressure, escape through
the exhaust port.
 The piston moves further downwards and uncovers the
intake port.
 Fresh air under pressure from the blower at
approximately 150 kPa enters the cylinder.
 As a result of the design of the intake port, the spent
gases are forced out by the incoming fresh air charge.
 As the piston moves upwards, it first closes
the intake port and thereafter the exhaust
port.
 The piston compresses the fresh air charge
to a high pressure and as a result a high
temperature is developed.
 The mixture is ignited by the high temperature
that results from the higher pressure of the
compressed air/fuel on the compression
stroke.
 The cylinder is designed with only intake ports
which are cut around the whole bottom end of
the cylinder.
 When the piston is at b.t.c., the ports are
exposed.
 The cylinder head is equipped with two
exhaust ports which are controlled by poppet
valves.
 A camshaft and valve mechanism are required
to operate the valves.
 Just before the piston reaches t.d.c., fuel is
injected into the cylinder.
 The fuel mixes with the air and is ignited by
the hot, compressed air.
 It burns and this raises the temperature.
 The high temperature causes the gases to
expand which force the piston downwards in
the cylinder.
 When the piston has moved through three-
quarters of its downward stroke, the exhaust
valves in the cylinder head are opened and the
spent gases, still under pressure, start escaping.
 With slight movement of the piston further
downwards, the intake port is exposed.
 Fresh air, under pressure from the blower at
approximately 150 kPa, enters the cylinder.
 The fresh air forces out the spent gases through
the exhaust port in the cylinder head.
 As the piston moves upwards again, the
exhaust valves are closed.
 The intake ports are now closed by the piston
with the result that the fresh air charge is
trapped.
 With the further movement of the piston
upwards the air charge is compressed to a
high pressure and high temperature
develops.
 Use sketches to describe the following:
1. The four-stroke compression ignition engine.
2. The operation of the power stroke of the four-
stroke C.I. engine.
3. The operation of the ‘Uniflow’-type two-stroke
engine.
4. The operation of the port-type two-stroke engine
during the exhaust and intake strokes.
 Pg 178
 A cylinder block is cast in a single unit and may be either a
single-cylinder or a multi-cylinder block.
 A cylinder block designed for an indirect air-cooled engine
contains channels, called water jackets, through which the
coolant is circulated by the water pump.
 Cast iron and aluminium alloy metals are generally used to
make cylinder blocks.
 The cylinder block’s function is to house the crankshaft,
the camshaft and the pistons.
 It is also a mounting piece for all other components on the
inside and outside thereof.
1. How does coolant circulate through the
cylinder block?
2. Name the metals from which cylinder blocks
and cylinder heads are manufactured.
3. State the function of the cylinder block.
 If the engine is indirectly air-cooled, the
cylinder head is also cast as a single unit and
contains water jackets.
 In the case of direct air-cooled engines, the
cylinder head has no water jackets, but fins
on the outside which increase the area
subjected to the cooling air.
 Cylinder heads are also manufactured from
cast iron or aluminium alloy.
 The cylinder head serves as a lid for the cylinders so
that the petrol mixture may be compressed in the
cylinders without a loss of pressure.
 In most cases the cylinder head contains a section of
the combustion chamber.
 With an overhead valve engine, the head houses the
valve mechanism.
 In the case of the side-valve engine, this is the function
of the cylinder block.
 The cylinder head also accommodates the spark
plugs.
1. State the function of the cylinder head.
2. State two ways by which cylinder heads of
direct and indirect air-cooled engines may be
identified.
 Crankshafts are made from steel alloys with
nickel-chrome and chrome vanadium.
 The crankshaft is the main shaft of the engine.
 It is housed in the cylinder block in bearing
liners.
 The crankshaft is provided with as many crank
journals as there are cylinders in the engine.
 The crankshaft is also provided with counterweights
for the purpose of static and dynamic balancing.
 The flywheel is bolted to the rear of the crankshaft
while the crankshaft pulley and the crankshaft gear
are fitted to the front.
 The crankshaft gear is for driving the camshaft gear.
 Steel alloys with nickel-chrome and chrome-
vanadium are used in the manufacture of
crankshafts to resist shock.
 The function of the crankshaft is to convert
the reciprocating movement of the pistons
into a rotary movement.

 Assessment
 1. Name the metal from which crankshafts
are manufactured.
 2. State the function of the crankshaft.
 A piston is a hollow, cylindrical unit, open at one end
and closed at the other.
 The closed end (or upper end) is called the piston
crown.
 A piston fits into a very accurately machined cylinder
with the minimum of clearance.
 The piston contains a hole for fitting the gudgeon pin
and grooves to accommodate the piston rings.
 The number of grooves is the choice of the designers,
but when pistons are replaced, this should be kept in
mind.
 Cast iron and aluminium alloy are popular
metals used to make pistons.
 A piston serves as a pump and thereby:
 causes a vacuum in the cylinder during the intake
stroke
 forces out the burnt gases during the exhaust
stroke
 compresses the petrol mixture in the combustion
chamber during the compression stroke.
 A piston also transmits the force due to the
expanding gases to the crankshaft via a
gudgeon pin and the connecting rod. This
causes the crankshaft to rotate.
1. Which metals are pistons made from?
2. What is the purpose of a piston in an engine?
 Piston rings are applied together with the
piston to act as a pump.
 An average of three piston rings per piston is
popular with modern engines, except where
high engine performances are required.
 On smaller engines usually only two piston
rings per piston may be used, but never less
than two.
 There are two types of piston ring, namely compression
rings and oil control rings.
 The general tendency is to apply all piston compression
rings above the position of the gudgeon pin.
 The oil control ring is applied below the gudgeon pin.
 Compression rings are those nearest the piston crown with
the oil control ring further below.
 When three piston rings are used, only one of them is an oil
control ring.
 In the case of two-stroke engines, no oil control rings are
applied.
 Cast iron is commonly used in the manufacture of piston
rings, although chrome may be added to the first
compression rings.
Function
 The function of the compression ring is to provide for a
gas-tight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall.
 This is so that pressure from above the piston will not
escape to the crankcase.
 Oil control rings control the quantity of oil on the cylinder
walls, that is they remove excess oil from the cylinder
walls but leave sufficient behind for lubrication purposes.
 State the function of the compression and oil
control rings.
 A gudgeon pin is a hollow, cylindrical object which fits
through holes in the piston and the small-end bearing of
the connecting rod.
 In this way the piston is connected to the connecting
rod.
 When the gudgeon pin is pressed into the small-end or
clamped thereto, the bearing surface is in the piston.
 When the gudgeon pin fits loosely in the small-end,
circlips are used in the piston bosses to keep the
gudgeon pin in position.
 A steel alloy of high quality is used in the
manufacture of gudgeon pins and they are
case-hardened.

Function
 The gudgeon pin acts as the linkage (crank
and slider) between the piston and
connecting rod.
 State the function of the gudgeon pin.
 Connecting rods are manufactured from high
quality cast steel with chrome-vanadium.
 The function of the connecting rod is to connect the piston
with the crankshaft whereby the force exerted on the piston
is transmitted to the crankshaft.
 At the one end, the connecting rod has the big-end bearing
which is fitted to the crankpin of the crankshaft in bearing
liners.
 The other end of the connecting rod is called the small end.
 This end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston by
the gudgeon pin.
 The gudgeon pin may fit loosely in the small end or may be
press-fitted or clamped
 The camshaft is housed in the cylinder block
except in engines with overhead camshafts.
 In all cases the camshaft is driven at half the
number of crankshaft revolutions.
 Except for the bearing journals the camshaft
contains pear-shaped cams which are responsible
for opening the engine valves.
 In most cases the camshaft also contains an
eccentric cam for operating the mechanical fuel
pump, as well as a helical gear for driving the
distributor and the oil pump.
 An alloy of cast iron, copper and chrome is
commonly used in the manufacture of
camshafts.
Function
 The functions of the camshaft are:
 to convert the rotary movement of the crankshaft
in the reciprocating movement of the valves
 to open the valves at a pre-determined time
 to drive the distributor, oil pump and mechanical
fuel pump.
1. State the function of the camshaft.
2. At which frequency (relative to the
crankshaft) does the camshaft rotate?
3. Which components are driven by the
camshaft and how is this possible?
 The timing gears comprise the crankshaft gear
and the camshaft gear.
 These gears are found at the front end of the
engine.
 The camshaft consists of exactly twice the
number of teeth as that on the crankshaft gear.
 This design is necessary so that the camshaft
is driven at half the number of crankshaft
revolutions.
 The timing gears are marked by the
manufacturers.
 These marks are used to determine the valve
timing.
 When the gears are fitted, care should be
taken that the timing marks are opposite each
other and in a straight line with the centres of
the gears.
 The function of the timing chain is to transmit
the rotary movement of the crankshaft to the
camshaft.
 It performs the same function as timing gears.
 When the engine design is such that the
timing gears do not mesh directly, a timing
chain is applied.
 One disadvantage of this application (of a
timing chain) is the increase in wear.
 There is also the tendency of the chain to
stretch which results in noisy operation, but
this can be limited to a great extent by the
application of a tensioner.
 Note that when the gears mesh directly, the
direction of rotation of the two gears is
opposite, while the direction of rotation is the
same when a timing chain is applied.
 Most modern vehicles use toothed timing belts to
control the valve timing.
 The timing belts operate in the same way as chains
do, but run on toothed pulleys instead of sprockets.
 Timing belts have the advantage of not requiring
lubrication and also operate more quietly than belts
and gears.
 They do however need to be replaced more
frequently to prevent breakages and serious engine
damage.
1. What are timing gears used for?
2. Why do manufacturers mark timing gears?
3. What is used in conjunction with timing
chains to counteract the effect of chain
elongation or stretching?
4. How is the valve timing controlled on modern
engines?
Material
 Valve lifters are
manufactured from
steel alloys and are
case-hardened.
 The function of a valve lifter is to follow the
shape of the pear-shaped cam on the
camshaft by which a reciprocating movement
is obtained.
 Valve lifters are available in various designs,
but the most important aspect is the
difference in operation of the overhead valve
engine and of the side-valve engine.
 On side-valve engines and some engines with overhead
camshafts, the valve lifter is placed directly between the
camshaft and the valve stem.
 Provision for the adjustment of valve clearance is made
on the valve lifter.
 This type is therefore known as the adjustable valve lifter.
 Other types of valve lifter are the tubular type, mushroom
type, roller type and the hydraulic type, all of them being
applied on overhead valve engines.
 The latter types are applied directly between the
camshaft and the pushrod and are not adjustable.
 Between which two components of the side-
valve engine is the valve lifter applied?
 The pushrod has the simple function of
transmitting the reciprocating movement of the
valve lifter to the rocker.
 The pushrod is a long, slender metal shaft or
rod which is positioned between the valve lifter
and the rocker on overhead valve engines.
 The one end is rounded to fit into a recess of
equal design in the valve lifter while the other
end contains a round socket in which the ball-
end of the adjusting screw on the rocker fits.
1. State the function of the pushrod.
2. Make a neat sketch depicting how the
pushrod acts between the cams and rocker
arm assembly.
 Rockers are mounted on a rocker shaft. There
is one rocker to each valve in the
 engine. The rocker is placed between the
pushrod and the valve stem and is
 therefore applied only on overhead valve
engines. The rocker provides for the
 adjustment of valve clearance by means of
adjusting screws. These adjusting
 screws may be the self-locking type or lock
nuts.
Material
 Rockers are manufactured from superior
quality steel alloy.

Function
 The function of the rocker is to transmit the
reciprocating movement of the
 pushrod to the engine valve.
1. How many rockers are there in a four-
cylinder engine?
2. Between which two components are rockers
applied?
3. In Chapter 8 you learnt about various
linkages. Which particular linkage does the
rocker arm represent?
 Intake valves are manufactured from steel
with a high chrome content while exhaust
valves are manufactured from silicon-chrome
steel to cope with high temperatures.
 Each cylinder in the engine has an intake
valve and an exhaust valve.
 These valves can be distinguished from each
other by the diameter over the valve head of
the intake valve ‒ which is usually more than
that of the exhaust valve.
 The valve stem fits in a valve guide in the cylinder
head in the case of the overhead valve engine and in
the cylinder block in the case of the side-valve engine.
 Engine valves require valve springs to close them and
to keep them properly closed to prevent the loss of
pressure.
 The modern tendency is to indicate the tension of
valve springs by means of a colour code.
 The valve spring is kept onto the valve by means of a
valve spring retainer and two half-moon cotters.
Material
 The valve spring is manufactured from a
superior quality spring steel.

Function
 Valve springs are used to ensure that valves
are drawn tightly into their valve
 seats, to ensure a gas-tight seal.
1. Name two types of adjusting screw which are
used for adjusting valve clearance.
2. How can intake valves be distinguished from
exhaust valves?
3. Name the metals from which engine valves
are manufactured.
4. State the function of engine valves.
5. State the function of the valve spring.
 The exhaust manifold is manufactured from
cast iron and the intake manifold from cast
iron or aluminium alloy.
 All internal combustion engines require at least one intake
and one exhaust manifold which are two separate
components.
 Mounting of the manifolds depends on the engine design.
 The two manifolds may be bolted together before they are
mounted as a unit on the engine, or bolted to the engine
independently of each other.
 A V-type engine uses two independent exhaust manifolds
and one intake manifold.
 The carburettor is bolted to the intake manifold while the
exhaust pipes and silencer are connected to the exhaust
manifold.
 The functions of the intake manifold are to
convey the petrol mixture from the
carburettor to the various engine cylinders
and to promote vaporisation of the petrol
mixture before admitting it to the cylinders.
 The function of the exhaust manifold is to
direct the exhaust gases from the various
engine cylinders to a common point.
1. Name the metals from which manifolds are
manufactured.
2. State the function of manifolds.
 Gaskets are placed between two surfaces to
prevent leakage of the following substances:
gases, water, oil and petrol.
 Gaskets are very important for application between
castings which are temporarily bolted together.
 No specific design can be referred to because the
gaskets vary from engine to engine.
 Gaskets are applied to obtain gas-tight and oil-tight
joints.
 Manufacturers usually supply a complete set of
gaskets for each type of engine, but they may also be
made by a motor mechanic.
 One of the materials used in the manufacture of
gaskets is cork which, in some cases, is impregnated
with a synthetic liquid rubber to make it less brittle.
 Other materials are solid synthetic rubber or
neoprene rubber, paper, aluminium alloy and thin
copper sheet metal.
 In the case of the latter, two plates are applied with
asbestos between them.
 The following materials are used:
 cylinder head gasket – asbestos
coated with copper
 intake and exhaust manifold gaskets
– treated asbestos
 oil pan and rocker cover gaskets –
cork or rubber
 other – treated fibre (vellumoid).
 A seal prevents the leakage of water, oil or
grease.
 It also prevents dust or water from
penetrating from the outside.
 When revolving shafts on the inside of an
engine are extended to the outside, it is
necessary to seal off the shaft against the
casting to prevent losing oil.
 This is the main function of the seal.
 The most important positions for the
application of seals are at the ends of the
crankshaft.
 Seals may comprise a metal housing, with a
spring-loaded neoprene rubber seal,
asbestos impregnated with graphite or even
felt being applied.
 Seals are used for fuel pumps,
crankshafts, gearboxes, rear axles and
front wheels.
1. State the function of gaskets.
2. Name the materials from which gaskets are
manufactured.
3. Name four places where gaskets are used.
4. State the function of oil seals.
5. Name three types of oil seals.
6. Name four places where oil seals are used.
7. State the most important positions for oil
seals on an engine.
Carburettor
 A carburettor has three main functions:
 to mix the fuel and air in the proper
ratio to suit the particular
circumstances, for example, cold
starting
 to vaporise the fuel mixture so that it
can burn better
 to control the speed of the engine by
increasing or decreasing the fuel
mixture.
 1. State the functions of the carburetor.
 2. Sketch a carburettor and indicate on the
sketch how it operates.
 The ignition coil transforms the 12 volts of the
battery to the high voltage required (between
16 000 volts and 22 000 volts) to make the
current jump the spark plug gap.
 The coil has two circuits, a primary circuit and
a secondary circuit.
 Materials used for spark plugs are:
 electrode – nickel alloy
 isolator – ceramic
 casing – steel.
Spark plug
 The function of the spark plug is to provide a
gap in the combustion chamber over which
the high voltage spark can jump in order to
ignite the air–fuel mixture at the end of the
compression stroke.
 State the function of the spark plug.
 These materials are used for distributors:
 distributor sleeve – aluminium alloy
 steel alloy distributor driving shaft with cams
 contact-breaker plate – soft steel
 contact breaking points – tungsten
 rotor – synthetic material
 distributor cover – synthetic material
 The distributor distributes the high voltage
spark from the coil to the different spark plugs
in the correct order, and at the right time.
 The starter motor makes the crankshaft rotate
at a pre-determined speed so that ignition of
the air–fuel mixture can take place, in order to
start the engine.
 An alternator generates electrical power in order
to charge the battery and keep the battery
charged.
 It should not be used to charge a flat battery.
 State the function of the following auto-
electrical components:
1. ignition coils
2. spark plugs
3. distributors
4. starter motors
5. alternators
 Bearings are made of bronze or brass
with a working surface of a thin layer of
white metal or an alloy consisting of
lead, antimony and radium.
 Ball bearings may also be used in
engine components.
 A bearing provides a reduced-friction
surface on which the wearing face of a
rotating part rests, for example
crankshaft bearings, gudgeon pin
bushes and camshaft bearings.
 Bushes are usually made from
phosphor bronze which is porous and
impregnated with oil to reduce friction.
1. What is Babbitt metal?
2. Describe the material that is used for bushes
and state why it is used.
Fly wheels are made of cast iron and steel.
 The fly wheel contains a ring gear,
clutch plate and pressure plate.
 The flywheel absorbs energy during the
power stroke to help the engine run
during the three idle strokes.
 Name the functions of the flywheel.
 The fuel pump provides fuel from the tank
to the carburettor at a pre-determined
pressure and at all engine speeds.
 Mechanical fuel pumps are operated by
the rotation of the camshaft.
 Electrical fuel pumps are usually used on
modern vehicles with fuel injection
engines.
 Describe the function of the fuel pump.
 The water pump is mounted in front of the
engine between the block and the radiator.

waterpump.wmv
 The water pump circulates the coolant
continuously within the engine block and
radiator to ensure that the coolant
temperature stays even.
 This is necessary to avoid overheating
around the combustion chambers and
cylinders.
 Why are water pumps important components
in engine cooling systems?
 The first attempt to make practical use of steam
seems to have been made by Heros of Alexandria in
ancient times.
 He was the first person to describe the principles of a
steam engine in 100 years AD.
 Heros is also celebrated for other amazing devices,
one of which powered the self-opening doors of a
temple.
 He lit a fire beneath an altar that caused the air to
AMAZING DOOR.wmv

warm and expand, increasing the pressure in a water

reservoir below.
 This forced water through a siphon into a hanging
bucket.
 The descent of the bucket pulled on ropes which
opened the doors.
 When the fire was extinguished, the water returned
into the vessel and the counter-weight shut the doors.
 A steam engine is based on the fact that steam made
by heating water occupies more than a thousand
times as much space as the water from which it
comes.
 The expansion of water into steam exerts a
force.
 It is this force that is being used when a steam
engine performs work.
 The water to make steam is heated in a boiler.
Any kind of fuel – coal, oil, gas, wood, or coke –
may be burned to boil the water.
 The resulting steam flows through a pipe into
the engine itself.
 Since the fuel is burned outside the engine, a
steam engine is called an external
combustion engine.
 We will now discuss three inventors of the
steam engine, namely:
1. Thomas Savery (1650–1715)
2. Thomas Newcomen (1663–1729)
3. James Watt (1736–1819)
 Thomas Savery was an English military engineer and inventor
who in 1698, patented the first crude steam engine, based on
Denis Papin’s Digester or pressure cooker of 1679.
 Thomas Savery had been working on solving the problem of
pumping water out of coal mines.
 His machine consisted of a closed vessel filled with water into
which steam under pressure was introduced.
 This forced the water upwards and out of the mine shaft.
 A cold water sprinkler was then used to condense the steam.
 This created a vacuum which sucked more water out of the
mine shaft through a bottom valve.
 Thomas Newcomen was the English blacksmith who
invented the atmospheric steam engine, an
improvement over Thomas Savery’s previous design.
 The Newcomen steam engine used the force of
atmospheric pressure to do the work.
 Thomas Newcomen’s engine pumped steam into a
cylinder.
 The steam was then condensed by cold water which
created a vacuum on the inside of the cylinder.
 The resulting atmospheric pressure operated a
piston, creating downward strokes.
 In Newcomen’s engine the intensity of pressure was
not limited by pressure of the steam, unlike what
Thomas Savery had patented in 1698.
 In 1712, Thomas Newcomen together with John
Calley built their first engine on top of a water-filled
mine shaft and used it to pump water out of the
mine.
 The Newcomen engine was the predecessor to the
Watt engine and it was one of the most interesting
pieces of technology developed during the 1700s.
 James Watt was a Scottish inventor and
mechanical engineer, born in Greenock.
 He was renowned for his improvement of the
steam engine. In 1765, James Watt, while
working for the University of Glasgow, was
assigned the task of repairing a Newcomen
engine, which was deemed inefficient but the
best steam engine of its time.
 That started the inventor working on several
improvements to Newcomen’s design.
 Most notable was Watt’s 1769 patent for a separate
condenser connected to a cylinder by a valve. Unlike
Newcomen’s engine, Watt’s design had a condenser
that could be cool while the cylinder was hot.
 Watt’s engine soon became the dominant design for
all modern steam engines and helped bring about the
Industrial Revolution.
 A unit of power called the Watt was named after
James Watt.
 The symbol for watts is W, and it is equal to 1⁄746 of a
horsepower.
 In a modern piston steam engine, steam from
the boiler enters a thick-walled metal
chamber called a steam chest.
 There are three holes, or ports, in the floor of
the steam chest.
 The centre port opens into a pipe, the steam
outlet or exhaust; the other two ports, one on
either side of the centre port, open into
another thick-walled metal chamber, the
cylinder.
 Moving back and forthacross the floor of the steam
chest is a rectangular box that has no bottom.
 This is the D-slide valve, which always covers the
steam outlet port and alternately covers one of the
two intake ports.
 Steam from the boiler rushing through one of the
intake ports strikes one side of the piston and forces
it towards the opposite end of the cylinder.
 The movement of the piston is called a stroke.
 As the piston moves, the D-slide also moves
so that, when the piston reaches the end of
its stroke, the port through which the steam
entered the cylinder is closed.
 At the same moment, the D-slide valve opens
the other port so that incoming steam is
guided to the other side of the piston.
 Steam striking this side pushes the piston
back towards the opposite end of the
cylinder.
 As the D-slide valve allows steam to enter
alternately one intake port and then the other, this
valve also keeps open a channel to the steam
outlet, where the steam that has just finished
pushing the piston escapes.
 The outlet may allow the steam to escape into the
air, or it may channel the steam to a chamber
called the condenser.
 There the steam is cooled and condenses into
water, which may be sent back to the boiler where
it is again heated into steam.
 The process of entering steam pushing the piston back
and forth, the movement of the D-slide valve, and the
escape of steam first from one side of the piston and
then the other, goes on continually as long as steam
enters the chest at pressure that is high enough.
 A rod, called the piston rod, is attached to one side of
the piston.
 The piston rod passes through a steam-tight seal at one
end of the cylinder.
 As the piston moves back and forth, the piston rod
moves in and out of the cylinder.
 The outer end of the rod is attached to a device
called a cross-head, which moves within a wide metal
tube extending outwards from the cylinder.
 The crosshead transmits the movement of the piston
to a series of devices that turn a large heavy wheel,
the flywheel.
 The back-and-forth motion of the piston is translated
into the rotary motion of the flywheel.
 If the shaft of the flywheel is attached to a machine,
the energy in the fuel is finally changed into work
performed by the machine.
 Attached to the turning axle of the flywheel is
the eccentric, a thick metal disc with an off-
centre hole through which passes the axle of
the flywheel.
 The eccentric translates the rotary motion of
the axle into back-and-forth motion.
 A rod transmits this motion through a steam-
tight seal to the D-slide valve inside the
steam chest, moving the valve back and forth
over the steam ports.
1. Name the person who first explained the principles of the
steam engine.
2. Name three inventors of the steam engine and state the
years in which they lived.
3. Define a stroke of a steam engine.
4. What is the function of the condenser of the steam
engine?
5. Define the function of a flywheel.
6. Define the function of the eccentric on the steam engine.
7. Use a drawing to illustrate the operation of a simple
steam engine with a piston.