• Endocrine system consist of glands widely

separated from each other with no direct links

• Endocrine glands consist of group of secretary

cells surrounded by an extensive network of
capillaries that facilitate the diffusion of
hormone from secretary cells into the blood
stream
• These are commonly known as ‘ductless glands’
because the hormones diffuse directly into the
blood stream.

• The hormone is then carried in the blood stream

to target tissues and organs

• Hormone is a chemical substance that is secreted

into the body fluids by cell or a group of cells and
that exerts a physiological control effort on other
cells of the body
The major glands

• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid gland
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas
• Thymus
• Ovaries
• Testes
• Pineal gland
 Pituitary gland
• Pituitary and hypothalamus forms a unique
component of entire endocrine system.

• They regulates growth and activity of most

of the other endocrine glands

• Also called hypophysis, Master gland

 definitions
• The pituitary gland is a small pea shaped
endocrine gland situated in relation to the
base of the brain.

• An endocrine gland, about the size of a

pea, that sits in a small, bony cavity at the
base of the brain whose secretions control
the other endocrine glands and influence
growth, metabolism, and maturation.
 Location

location of pituitary gland in the human brain.

• Location : in the hypophyseal fossa on
the superior surface of the sphenoid bone ,
below the hypothalamus to which it is
attached by a stalk.
 measurement

• The gland is oval shape and measures

8 mm anterio-posteriorly , 12 mm
transverse and weighs about 500 mg.
 relations
• Superior : optic chiasma with
diaphragmatic sella intervening.

• Inferior : sphenoid air sinuses with thin

plate of hypophyseal fossa intervening.

• Lateral : cavernous sinus with 3 , 4 , 5th

cranial nerve in the lateral wall.
 parts
The pituitary gland is divided into;

• Anterior pituitary/ Adenohypophysis

• Posterior pituitary/ Neurohypophysis
• Intermediate lobe/ Pars intermedia
• The adenohypophysis, is the glandular, anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland. It is an up growth of
glandular epithelium from the pharynx

• The posterior pituitary is a down growth of

nervous tissue from the brain. There is a network
of nerve fibres between the hypothalamus and
posterior pituitary.

• Between the 2 lobes there is a thin strip of tissue

called intermediate lobe.
 Parts of adenohypophysis

a) Pars distalis: it is the distal part that

comprises the majority of the anterior
pituitary; it is where most pituitary hormone
production occurs.
 Pars tuberalis

Pars distalis / anterior

Pars intermedia
b). Pars tuberalis: This is the tubular part that
forms a sheath that extends up from the pars
distalis and wraps around the pituitary stalk. Its
function is poorly understood.

c). Pars intermedia: This is the intermediate

part between the pars distalis and the posterior
pituitary and is often very small in humans
 PARTS OF neurohypophysis

Posterior pituitary composed of two parts:

• Pars posterior/ nervosa/ neural lobe:

constitutes the majority of the posterior
pituitary and is the storage site of oxytocin
and vasopressin.

• Infundibular stalk: also known as the

infundibulum or pituitary stalk.
• The magnocelluar neurosecretary cells of the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei located
in the hypothalamus secrete the hormones
and are stored in the posterior pitutary
Pitutary stalk/
Infundibulum

Pars posterior/
nervosa
 Histology of anterior lobe

Anterior lobe consist of thick irregular cords of cells

which are separated by sinusoids .

• Sinusoids are small blood vessels , that is a

capillary similar to fenestrated endothelium.
• Chromophils (50 %): they are brightly stained
granules in the cytoplasm. They are of two
types
- Acidophils/ Alpha cells
- Basophils/ Beta cells

(somatotrophs,thyrotrophs, corticotrophs,
gonadotrophs,lactotrophs)

• Chromophobs (50 %): are much smaller in

size and are not prominent.
 Histology of intermediate lobe
• Irregular row of follicles containing pale
staining colloid material and cluster cells.
 Histology of posterior lobe

It consist of;

1. Hypothalamo – hypophyseal nerve fibres

2. Pituicytes (lie b/w the axons , they are

supporting cells)
• The nerve terminals show vesicles called
hering bodies where hormone is stored .

• Nerve fibres arise in the supraoptic and

paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus.
 Blood and lymphatic supply
• Arterial supply : superior hypophyseal
arteries and inferior hypophyseal arteries.

• Venous drainage : pituitary gland drains

into intercavernous sinus/ venous sinus.

• Lymphatic supply : nil , to protect brain

from infections.
 Hormones Regulated by the
Hypothalamic-Pituitary System
Hormone Pituitary Stimulating Hypothalamic Releasing
Hormone Hormone

Thyroid hormones T4, T3 Thyroid-stimulating Thyrotropin-releasing

hormone (TSH) hormone (TRH)

Cortisol Adreno Corticotropin Corticotropin-releasing

hormone (ACTH) factor (CRF)

Estrogen or testosterone Follicle-stimulating hormone Gonadotropin-releasing

(FSH), luteinizing hormone ( hormone (GnRH)
LH)

Insulin like growth factor-I Growth hormone Growth hormone-releasing

(IGF-I) hormone (GHRH)
 Hormones of anterior pituitary and its
functions
Hormone Functions

Growth Hormone (GH) Regulates metabolism , promotes tissue growth especially of

bones and muscles.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Stimulates growth and activity of thyroid gland and secretes
(TSH) T3 and T4.

Adreno Corticotropic Hormone Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secretes glucocorticoids.

(ACTH)

Prolactin Stimulates breast milk production.

Follicular Stimulating Hormone Stimulates production of sperm in the testes , estrogen in the
(FSH)) ovaries , maturation of ovarian follicles and ovulation

Luteneising Hormone (LH) Stimulate testosterone production in testes and progesterone

by corpus luteum.
 Posterior pituitary hormones

• Oxytocin : is released from the para

ventricular nucleus in the hypothalamus

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH/

vasopressin) : the majority of which is
released from the supraoptic nucleus in the
hypothalamus. ADH acts on the collecting
ducts of the kidney to facilitate the
reabsorption of water into the blood
 Disorders of pituitary gland
A. PITUTARY DWARFISM/
HYPOPITUTARISM

Occurs due to deficiency of growth hormone

in childhood. Growth is stunted and arrest of
skeletal development. The puberty is delayed
but they mature sexually and there is no
mental retardation.
 b. hyperpituitarism
1. gigantism

• Occur as a result of overproduction of GH

in adolescence before the closure of
epiphysis. It can be due to pituitary tumors

• Features are excessive tallness , larger

hands and feet , enlargement of both breast ,
2. ACROMEGALY

• Due to hypersecretion of GH in adults, after

closure of epiphysis.

• Features are thick skin , prominent brows ,

coarse face , broad thick nose , prognathism/
protruding mandible , acromegalic feet and
hands.
 c. Diabetes insipidus

• Any damage to hypothalamus or

posterior pituitary leads to hyposecretion
of ADH , results in decreased re
absorption of water by collecting ducts
 D. syndrome of inappropriate secretion
of ADH ( SIADH)

• It occurs due to hypersecretion of ADH ,

leading to water retention and
hyponatremia.
 e. hyperprolactinemia

• Occur due to hypersecretion of prolactin due

to tumor of anterior pituitary or some
drugs ,can result in amenorrhea , hrisutism
,infertility in females and in males
oligospermia, impotence.
 HYPOTHALAMUS
• It is a part of the diencephalon

• It is the lateral wall of the third ventricle

• It has been described as the chief ganglion of

ANS because of its role in the control of many
metabolic activities of the body

• It has endocrine functions also

 NUCLEI
(Cluster of neurons)
Hypothalamus has many nuclei, but the two
most important are;

• Supraoptic nucleus : lies above the optic

chiasma, which secretes ADH hormone

• Paraventricular nucleus : lies just above the

supra optic nucleus and secretes oxytocin
 ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF
HYPOTHALAMUS
Secretion of posterior pituitary hormones

• ADH and oxytocin secretion by supraoptic and

paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus
respectively

• These are transported to posterior pitutary

through hypothalmo-hypophyseal tract
Control of anterior anterior pitutary :
By secreting releasing hormones and inhibitary
hormones like;

• Growth hormone releasing hormone

• Growth hormone inhibiting hormone/
somatostatin
• Thyrotropin releasing hormone
• Corticotropin releasing hormone
• Gonadotropin releasing hormone
• Prolactininhibitary hormone
• These hormones also transported from
hypothalamus to anterior pitutary by the
hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal blood
vessels

Regulation of water

• Hypothalamus regulating water content of the

body by thirst center and releasing ADH
Thyroid gland
 definition

• Thyroid gland is the H shaped/ butterfly

shaped endocrine gland situated in the
neck, in front of larynx and trachea.
• Largest endocrine gland in the body

• It is usually large in females and further

increase in size during pregnancy

• Yellowish brown in colour and is highly

vascular
• It produces thyroid hormones that regulate the
body's metabolism.

• It also plays a role in bone growth and

development of the brain and nervous system in
children.

• Thyroid hormones also

help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate,
digestion, muscle tone, and reproductive
functions.
• The pituitary gland controls the release of
thyroid hormones.
 Position and measurement
• Situated in the neck in front of the larynx and
trachea at the level of 5th , 6th, 7th cervical and
1st thoracic vertebrae.

• weight about 30 gms , each lobe is 5cm long,

3 cm wide and 2 cm thick .

• Isthmus 1.25 cm in both vertical and

transverse diameter
 Parts
• Consist of 2 lobes on either side of trachea.
Each lateral lobe is roughly conical in shape.

• Lobes are joined by a narrow isthmus lying

in front of trachea .

• It has a true fibrous capsule and a false

capsule.
 Capsules
• Thyroid gland is covered by a true fibrous
capsule, formed by condensation of connective
tissue fibres

• There is false capsule formed by pretracheal

layer of deep cervical fossa. This is attached to
hyoid bone and oblique line of thyroid cartilage.
Because of these attachments, the thyroid gland
moves up during swallowing
 Histology

• Capsule sends numerous septae inside the

gland and divides into lobules.

• Each lobules is made up of follicles lined by

follicular cells

• Each follicle has a basement membrane and

a single layer of cuboidal epithelium
• At the centre of each follicle a
homogenous material called colloid
(thyroid hormone stored in inactive form)
is present in varying amount depend on
the secretary activity of the gland

• In between follicles, there are cluster of

cells called parafollicular cells/ C (cells
secretes calcitonin)
 HORMONES

• Follicular cells secrete T3 / Tri iodo

thyronin and T4 / Tetra iodothyronin.

• Calcitonin is secreted by parafollicular

cells.
 relations
• Anterolaterally : lobes are covered by
strap muscles – sterno hyoid and sterno
thyroid.

• Posterior surface : internal jugular vein,

common carotid artery and vagus nerve &
Superior and inferior parathyroid gland on
the posterior surface .
Lateral view
• Medial surface : trachea , oesophagus ,
laryngeal nerves , cricothyroid and inferior
construtor muscle of pharynx, and thyroid &
cricoid cartilages
Blood supply
 Arterial supply

1. A pair of superior thyroid arteries :

arise from external carotid arteries , enter
the upper pole of the lobes
• 2. A pair of inferior thyroid arteries : arise
from thyro cervical trunk of the 1st part of
subclavian arteries.

• Arteria thyroidea : an unpaired branch may

arise from the arch of aorta
 Venous supply
• 3 pairs of veins via superior , middle and
inferior thyroid veins .

• Superior and middle veins drain into

internal jugular vein and inferior drains
into bracheo cephalic vein.
 Nerve supply

• Parasympathetic from vagus nerve and

sympathetic from cervical sympathetic
ganglia.
 APPLIED ANATOMY
A. GOITRE  
is a swelling in the neck resulting from
an enlarged thyroid gland.  A goitre is
associated with a thyroid that is not
functioning properly.

• Caused by iodine deficiency.

 b. Hyperthyroidism

• Too much thyroid hormone from an overactive

thyroid gland is called hyperthyroidism

• One of the most serious forms of

hyperthyroidism is known as Graves' disease/
thyrotoxicosis. This is an autoimmune disorder.

• It increases body metabolic rate

 c. hypothyroidism

• Too little thyroid hormone from an underactive

thyroid gland is called hypothyroidism.

• More rarely, there may be a pituitary gland tumor,

which blocks the pituitary from producing TSH ,
as a result that the thyroid is producing too few
hormones, causing many physical and mental
processes to become sluggish.
 Parathyroid gland

• Definition

The parathyroid glands are small

endocrine glands in the neck that produce
parathyroid hormone.
• There are four pea shaped parathyroid glands
in our body, present at the upper and lower
pole of the posterior surface of thyroid gland .

• So called superior or inferior parathyroid

glands.
• Parathyroid hormone maintains the
body’s calcium levels by increasing the
absorption of calcium from the bones,
kidneys, and GI tract.

• So the nervous and muscular systems can

function properly
 position
• Superior parathyroid lie on the posterior
side of the lateral lobe of thyroid gland, at
the junction of upper and middle thirds

• Inferior parathyroid lie in the posterior

surface of lateral lobe of thyroid gland ,
close to the entrance of inferior thyroid
artery.
 measurement
• Oval shaped

• Yellowish orange color

• Measure 6mm x 4mm x 2mm.

 histology
• Surrounded by thin fibrous capsule

There are 2 types of cells;

• Chief cells : more in younger individuals. They
are polygonal cells with central nucleus and
secretes parathormone (pale stain)

• Oxyphil cells : larger cells with abundant

granules. Their number increases with age (dark
stain)
 Blood supply
Arterial
- Superior and inferior thyroid arteries
supply the parathyroid glands.

Venous
- Parathyroid glands are drained by thyroid
veins.
 APPLIED ANATOMY
Hypoparathyroidism

• Decreased serum parathormone, occur in

case of accidental removal of parathyroid
during thyroidectomy or inadequate blood
supply to parathyroid , leads to
hypocalcemia and carpopedal spasm and
convulsions.
Hyperparathyroidism

• Increased parathormone in the blood, can

be due to tumors, renal diseases . There
will be increased bone resorption and
leading to multi fractures, peptic ulcers
etc.
 Adrenal / supra renal
gland
• Paired glands lies superior to each kidney
and have a flattened pyramidal shape.

• Highly vascular and yellowish pink in

colour
 Position

• At the top of kidneys.

• Between superio-medial aspect of kidneys

 Releasing hormones in response to stress
through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as
cortisol, catecholamines such as epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine.
 measurement

• 7 – 10 gm is the combined weight

• 4 cm long and 3cm thick.

 relations
Right adrenal gland

• Medially : right edge of inferior vena

cava
• Posteriorly : diaphragm and upper pole
of kidney
• Superiorly : bare area of liver
Left adrenal gland

• Anteriorly : overlapped by the body of

pancreas
• Superiorly : posterior surface of stomach
• Posteriorly : diaphragm
 PARTS
Adrenal cortex
• It is the large outer part
• 80-90 % of the gland

Adrenal medulla
• Inner region of the gland
• It is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the
autonomous nervous system, but its cell lack
axons
 HISTOLOGY
• Capsule : there is a thin fibrous capsule for the
gland

• Adrenal cortex is subdivided into 3 – Zones;

1. Zona glomerulosa
2. Zona fasciculata
3. Zona reticularis
1. Zona glomerulosa

• The outer most layer

• Its cells are arranged very closely and in

spherical cluster

• This cells secrete mineralo-corticosteroids,

mainly aldosterone
2. Zona fasciculata

• It is the middle zone situated between

glomerulosa and reticularis
• It is the widest of 3 zones
• It consist of cells arranged in long , straight
columns
• It is responsible for producing
glucorticosteroids (cortizole/hydrocortizone)
3. Zona reticularis

• It id the inner most cortex layer

• They are arranged in branching cords

• It produce small amount of androgens and

estrogen
• Adrenal medulla has chromaffin cells which
are the body’s main source of the circulating
catecholamines (adrenaline and
noradrenaline)
 BLOOD SUPPLY

Each gland receives 3 sets of arteries

1. Superior suprarenal arteries

2. Middle suprarenal arteries
3. Inferior suprarenal arteries
Venous drainage via suprarenal veins

• Right side suprarenal vein drains into inferior

vena cava.

• Left side suprarenal vein drains into left renal

vein
Nerve supply

• Rich supply from iliac plexes and splanchnic

nerve
 APPLIED ANATOMY
• Excess glucocorticosteroids – Cushing’s syndrome

• Deficient glucocorticosteroids – Addison’s disease,

congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Waterhouse
Friderichsen syndrome

• Excess mineralocorticosteriods - Primary and

secondary aldosteronism

• Deficient mineralocorticosteriods – Hyponatremia,

hyperkalemia, dehydration, hypotension etc
1. Cushing’s syndrome

• Excess production of glucocorticosteroids from

zona glomerulosa

• Due to hormone secreting adrenal tumors,

hypersecretion of ACTH by pitutary, prolonged
therapeutic use of glucocorticosteroids
• Symptoms include painful adiposity of the
face, neck and abdomen, excess protein
catabolism causing muscle weakness,
diminished protein synthesis, osteoporosis,
kyphosis, pathological fracture,
hyperglycemia, infections, insomnia,
irritability, depression, hypertension etc
2. Adrenal insufficiency

• A group of disturbances characterized by under

production of cortisol

• It can be caused by problems in the adrenal

glands or by impairment of pituitary/
hypothalamus
a). Addison’s disease : insufficient production of
glucocorticoids, (from zona fasciculata) can be
caused by auto immune reactions
b). Congenital adrenal hyperplasia : are genetic
defects of enzymes involved in cortisol
production and can affect sex characteristics of
affected patients

c). Waterhouse Friderichsen syndrome :

adrenal gland failure due to bleeding into the
adrenal gland caused by severe bacterial
infection
3. Hypersecretion of mineralo-corticoids

a). Primary aldosteronism (Conn’s syndrome):

Due to excess secretion of mineralo-

corticosteroids (aldosterone) independent of
renin- angiotensin-aldosterone system.
May be due to tumors. It cause Na
retension and K depletion, hypertension,
alkalosis, muscle weakeness etc
b). Secondary aldosteronism :

Caused by overstimulation of normal

gland by excess renin and angiotensin in the
blood, which may be due to low renal perfusion
and low blood sodium.
4. Hyposecretion of mineralo-corticoids

• Hyposecretion of aldosterone results from

failure of kidney to regulate Na, K, and water
excretion leading to hyponatremia,
hyperkalemia, dehydration, low blood volume
and low BP
 PANCREASE
• It is a soft lobulated and elongated organ

• It is a partly endocrine and partly exocrine

gland

• The exocrine part secrete digestive pancreatic

juice and the endocrine part secrete
hormones
 POSITION

• It is placed retroperitoneal at the level of L1

and L2 vertebra

• It is posterior to stomach, between the

duodenum on the right and the spleen on the
left
 MEASUREMENT

• It is ‘J’ shaped structure

• 15-20 cm long, about 3 cm broad, and about

2 cm thick

• Weight is about 90 gm
 PARTS

• The pancreas is divided (from right to left) into

the head, the neck, the body and the tail

• Head : rests within the concavity of the

duodenum
• Neck : lies in front of the superior mesentric
artery and vein

• Body : lying behind the base of the stomach,

passing over the aorta and L2 vertebra

• Tail : lies anterior to the left kidney and closely

related to the hilum of spleen
 HISTOLOGY

• The exocrine part of pancreas has closely

packed serous acini/ alveoli, lined by columnar
cells.

• It secrete an enzyme rich alkaline fluid into the

duodenum via the pancreatic duct.
• The enzyme digest protein, carbohydrates,
lipids and nucleic acids.

• These enzymes include trypsin and

chymotrypsin.
• The endocrine part of pancreas consist of
isolated islets of Langerhans, which are
clumps of secretary cells, seen scattered in
between the serous acini

• These cells are numerous in the tail of

pancreas
Each islet has - alpha, beta and delta cells;

• Beta cells (80 %) : secrete insulin

• Alpha cells (25 %): secrete glucagon

• Delta cells (5 %) : secrete somatostatin

 DUCTS OF PANCREASE
The exocrine secretion (pancreatic juice) is
drained by the two ducts

• The main pancreatic duct/ duct of Wirsung

• The accessary pancreatic duct/ duct of

Santorini
• The main duct lies nearer the posterior
surface, it begins at the tail and run towards
the right through the body

• It receives numerous small duct also

• Main pancreatic duct joined to the terminal

part of the common bile duct to supply
pancreatic juice. (Within the head of the
pancreas)
• The accessary pancreatic duct begins from
the lower part of the head, it communicates
with the main pancreatic duct and also to 2nd
part of duodenum.
 BLOOD SUPPLY
• Artery : superior and inferior pancreatio-
duodenal arteries and branches from splenic
artery

• Vein : superior and inferior pancreatio-

duodenal veins and branches from splenic
veins
• Nerve supply : vagus nerve and thoracic
splanchnic nerve passing through the
diaphragm

• Lymph : drained via splenic, celiac and

superior mescentric lymph nodes
 APPLIED ANATOMY
1. Diabetes mellitus : Due to deficiency of insulin

• Type 1 – chronic auto immune disorder in which

immune system attacks the insulin secreting cells in
the pancreas. This causes the patient’s blood glucose
level to rise to a dangerous level

• Type 2 – is more common among obese and adults, in

children also. Unlike type 1, it can be permanently
corrected with weight loss and medications
2. Pancreatitis : inflammation of pancreas

• It is associated with recurrent gall stones,

chronic alcoholism, measles, mumps etc.

• It is likely to cause intense pain in the central

abdomen that often radiates to the back

• Jaundice, pale stools and dark urine will be

present
3. Pancreatic cancer :

• Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is a cancer of the

exocrine part of the pancreas

• It is a common cancer

• The risk factors include smoking, obesity, diabetes

and hereditary.
 THYMUS GLAND
• Thymus gland is a soft pinkish gray, bilobed
organ seen inferior to the thyroid gland
• In adults it is yellow in colour

• It is a specialized organ of the immune system

• Within the thymus, T cells/ T lymphocytes

mature. T cells are initial to the adaptive
immune system, where the body adapts
specifically to foreign bodies
 POSITION
• Thymus gland lies in the upper part of the
mediastinum behind sternum and extends
upwards into the root of the neck
 MEASUREMENT
• At birth, it is about 5 cm in length, 4 cm
breadth and about 6 mm in thickness

• The organ enlarges during childhood and

atrophies at puberty.

• Thymus reaches maximum weight (20-37 gm)

by the time of puberty
• The thymus in older people is scarcely
distinguishable from the surrounding fatty
tissue, eventually degenerating into tiny
islands of fatty tissue.

• By the age of 75 yrs, it weighs only 6 gms.

 RELATIONS
• Anteriorly : sternum and upper 4 costal cartilage

• Posteriorly : aortic arch and its branches, brachio-

cephalic vein and trachea

• Laterally : lungs

• Superiorly : structures in the root of neck

• Inferiorly : heart
 PARTS
• It consist two identical lobes

• Enclosed by fibrous capsule which dips into

their substance and dividing them into lobules

• Numerous lobules held together by areolar

connective tissue
• The lobules are made up of number of small
nodules/ follicles

• The follicles are irregular in shape and are

more or less fused together, especially
towards the interior of the organ

• Each follicle is 1-2 mm in diameter and it

consists of medulla and cortex
 HISTOLOGY
• Follicle – cortex and medulla

• Cortex : is mainly made up of thymocytes,

supported by a network of finely-branched
epithelial reticular cells, which is continues with
a similar network in medulla

• Hematopoietic precursors from bone marrow,

referred to as thymocytes, mature into T cells.
• After maturation, T cells emigrates from the
thymus and make up the peripheral T cells
responsible for adaptive immunity

• In the medulla, there is nest like bodies called

Hassall’s corpuscles. They are concentric,
layered whorls of epithelial cells that increase
in number through out life
 BLOOD SUPPLY

• Artery : supplying the thymus are derived

from the internal thoracic artery, and forms
superior and inferior thyroid artery

• Vein : vein ends in the left brachiocephalic

vein and thyroid veins
• Nerve : derived from vagus nerve and
sympathetic nervous system

• No lymphatic supply
 APPLIED ANATOMY
• Hypersensitivity
• Immunodeficiency
• Severe combined immunodeficiency
syndrome (SCID)
• HIV/AIDS
• Autoimmune disease
• Cancer
 Hypersensitivity
• Allergy result from an inappropriate and
excessive immune response to common antigens

• Substances that trigger an allergic response are

called allergens

• Sometimes an allergen may cause a sudden and

severe, probably fatal reaction in a sensitive
individual, this is called anaphylaxis
 Immunodeficiency

• As the thymus is the organ of T cell

development, any congenital defect in thymic
genes or a defect in thymocyte development
can lead to a profound T cell deficiency in
primary immunodeficiency disease
 DiGeorge syndrome
• It is a genetic disorder caused by the deletion of
a small section of chromosome 22

• This result in thymic aplasia or congenital

deficiency of a thymus

• Patients may present with a profound

immunodeficiency disease, due to lack of T cells
 SCID- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
Syndrome

• Group of rare congenital genetic diseases that result in

combined T lymphocyte and B lymphocytes
deficiencies

• These syndrome caused by defective hepatopoietic

cells which are precursor of both B and T cells

• This result in a severe reduction in developing

thymocytes in the thymus and consequently thymic
atrophy
 HIV/ AIDS
• HIV virus causes an acquired T cell
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by
specifically killing CD4 T cells, whereas the
major effect of the virus is on mature
peripheral T cells, HIV can also infect
developing thymocytes in the thymus, most of
which express CD4
 Autoimmune disease
• It is caused by the hyperactive immune system
that instead of attacking foreign pathogens,
react against the host organism (self) causing
disease

• One of the primary functions of the thymus is

to prevent autoimmunity
 Cancer
Two primary forms of tumors originate in the thymus

• Thymomas : tumors originating from the thymic

epithelial cells are called thymomas

• Some thymomas grew very slowly and other grew

very rapidly and can spread to surrounding tissues.
Often requires surgery to remove entire thymus
• Lymphomas : tumors originating from the
thymocytes are called lymphomas

• Lymphoma or leukemia of thymocyte origin

are classified as precursor T acute
lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL)
 PINEAL GLAND
• Also known as pineal body or epiphysis
cerebri, is a small endocrine gland in the
vertebrate brain

• It produces melatonin, which affects the

modulation of sleep patterns in both seasonal
and circadian rhythms
• The pineal body consists of a lobular 
parenchyma of Pinealocytes (produce
melatonin) surrounded by connective tissue
 spaces.

• The gland's surface is covered by a pial

 capsule.
• Its shape resembles a tiny pine nut (hence its
name) and it is located in the epithalamus,
near the center of brain, between the two
hemispheres, tucked in a groove where the
two halfs of thalamus join
 MEASUREMENT

• Reddish gray gland, about the size of rice (5-8

mm) in humans
 POSITION
• A part of epithalamus

• Lies between the lateraly positioned thalamic

bodies

• It is also located behind the third ventricle or

bathed in CSF
 BLOOD SUPPLY
• Artery : supplied from choroidal branches of
posteriar cerebral artery

• Nerve : receives a sympathetic innervation

from the superior cervical ganglion. A
parasympathetic innervation from the
pterygopalantine and optic ganglia also
present