INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS

A Signal is the function of one or more independent variables

that carries some information to represent a physical
phenomenon.
Signal can one dimensional signal or multi dimensional
signals.
Signal which dependent on one variable it is called one
dimensional signal.
Signal which dependent on more variables are called as multi
dimensional signals.
A system is any process that produces an output signal in
response to an input signal.
Different of Signals and Systems
present in CAR.
 Course Outcomes
Classify the signals and systems and analyze
the continuous-time signals using Fourier series.
Analyze the continuous-time signals and
systems using Fourier transform.
Illustrate the various systems and analyse LTI
systems.
Analyze the Concepts of convolution,
correlation, Energy and Power density spectrum
and their relationships.
Apply the Laplace transform and z- transform to
analyze the different time signals.

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 Introduction to Signals
A Signal is the function of one or more independent
variables that carries some information to represent a
physical phenomenon.
Examples : ECG Signal, EEG Signal

Mainly Signals are divided into two types

1. Continuous-time signals
2. Discrete-time signals
Continuous-Time

Signals
Signal that has a value for all points in time
Function of time
Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of
time
Commonly found in the physical world
ex. Human speech

X(t)

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 Discrete-Time Signals
 Signal that has a value for only specific points in time
 Function of the sample value, n x[n]
 Write as x[n]
 Often called a sequence
 Commonly found in the digital world
 Displayed graphically as individual values
 Called a “stem” plot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF SIGNALS
Continuous And Discrete Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Even and Odd Signals
Energy and Power Signals
Deterministic and Random Signals
 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal
x (t) is periodic if x(t) = x(t+T) for any T
Example
 x(t) = A cos(t)
x(t+T) = A cos[t+T)] = A cos(t+T)
= A cos(t+2)
= A cos(t)
= x(t)
Note: T =1/f ; f
x (t) is aperiodic if x(t) ≠ x(t+T) for any T
 Even and Odd Signals
Even Functions Odd Functions
g ( t ) =g ( - t ) g ( t ) =- g ( - t )
 g( t ) + g( - t )
The even part of a function is g e ( t ) = .
2
g( t ) - g( - t )
The odd part of a function is g o ( t ) = .
2
A function whose even part is zero is odd and a function
whose odd part is zero is even.
The derivative of an even function is odd and the derivative
of an odd function is even.
The integral of an even function is an odd function, plus a
constant, and the integral of an odd function is even.
Various Combinations of even and odd
functions
Function Sum Difference Product Quotient
type
Both even Even Even Even Even

Both odd Odd Odd Even Even

Even and Neither Neither Odd Odd

odd
 Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal
A signal with finite energy and zero power is called
Energy Signal i.e.for energy signal
0<E<∞ and P =0
Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area under the
square of the magnitude of the signal.


 x t
2
Ex  dt

The units of signal energy depends on the unit of the
signal.
Energy and Power Signals Contd.
Power Signal
Some signals have infinite signal energy. In
that case it is more convenient to deal with
average signal power.
 For power signals
0<P<∞ and E = ∞
Average power of the signal is given by
T /2
1
x  t  dt
2
Px  lim
T  T 
T / 2
 Deterministic & Random Signals
Deterministic signals
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically.
For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.
Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals Contd.

Non Deterministic or Random signals

• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not
predictable w.r.t time.
• There is an uncertainty with respect to its value at
any time.
• These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.
 For example Thermal Noise generated is non
deterministic signal.
 Elementary Signals: Unit Step signal
Unit step function is denoted by u(t). It is defined as U(t)= {1 t
≥0
{0 t <0

• It is used as best test signal.

• Area under unit step function is unity.
Elementary Signals: Impulse signal
Elementary Signals: Ramp signal
Elementary Signals: Parabolic signal
Elementary Signals: Signum signal
Elementary Signals: Exponential signal
Elementary Signals: Exponential signal
Elementary Signals: Exponential signal
Elementary Signals: Rectangular signal
Elementary Signals: Triangular signal
Elementary Signals: Sinusoidal
Sinusoidal signal is in the form of
Signal
x(t) = A cos(wt±ϕ) or
A sin(wt±ϕ)
Elementary Signals: Sinc Signal
Operations of Signals
There are two variable parameters in signals
1. Amplitude
2.Time
The following operation can be performed with
amplitude:
1. Amplitude Scaling
C x(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose
amplitude is scaled by a factor C.
Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition
of their corresponding amplitudes.
As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of

z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of

z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3

3 < t < 10 amplitude of

z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
Subtraction
subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their
corresponding amplitudes.
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of
z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of

z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 1 - 2 = -1

3 < t < 10 amplitude of

z (t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
Multiplication
Multiplication of two signals is nothing but
multiplication of their corresponding amplitudes.
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of
z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 0 ×2 = 0

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of

z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 1 ×2 = 2

3 < t < 10 amplitude of

z (t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0

operations can be performed with time: Time Shifting
x(t ± t0) is time shifted version of
the signal x(t)
x (t + t0) → negative shift

x (t - t0) →positive shift

Time Scaling
x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t).
where A is always positive.
|A| > 1 → Compression of the signal
|A| < 1 →Expansion of the signal
Time Reversal
x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).
Analogy Between Vectors and Signals
There is a perfect analogy between vectors and signals.
A vector contains magnitude and direction.
Let the component of V1 along with V2 is given by
C12V2.
The component of a vector V1 along with the vector V2
can obtained by taking a perpendicular from the end of
V1 to the vector V2

V1= C12V2 + Ve

Where Ve is the error vector.

But this is not the only way of expressing vector V1 in
terms of V2. The alternate possibilities are:
V1=C1V2+Ve1 V2=C2V2+Ve2
Signals
Orthogonal Signal Space
c
Mean Square Error
The average of square of error function f (t) is
called as mean square error. It is denoted by ε
(epsilon).
Closed and Complete Set of Orthogonal Functions
Let us consider a set of n mutually orthogonal
functions x1 (t), x2 (t)...xn (t) over the interval t1 to
t2 .
This is called as closed and complete set when
there exist a function f(t) satisfying the condition

then f(t) is said to be orthogonal to each and every

function of orthogonal set. This set is incomplete
without f(t). It becomes closed and complete set
when f(t) is included.
 f(t) can be approximated with this orthogonal
set by adding the components along mutually
orthogonal signals i.e.

If the infinite series converges to f(t)

then mean
square error is zero.
Orthogonality in Complex Functions
If f1 (t) and f2 (t) are two complex functions,
then f1 (t) can be expressed in terms of f2(t) as
The above equation represents orthogonality condition
in complex functions