The Language of Mathematics

✓What is a language?
✓Components of a Language
✓Importance of Mathematical Language
✓Characteristics of a Mathematical
Language
✓Expressions vs. Sentences
✓The grammar of Mathematics
✓Conventions used in Mathematics
✓Sets, Relations and Functions
✓Elementary Logic
SETS, RELATIONS
AND FUNCTIONS
Sets are collections of well-
defined objects, relations
indicate relationships between
members of two sets A and B and
functions are a special type of
relation where there is exactly or
at most one relationship for each
element a ∈ A with an element in
 Sets & elements
Set theory is a basis of modern mathematics,
and notions of set theory are used in all formal
descriptions
SETS
- a set is a collection of well-defined objects
which are called the members or elements
of that set. If we have a set we say that some
objects belong (or do not belong) to this set,
are (or are not) in the set.
 Sets & elements
A set is said to contain its elements.
The notation x ∈ S denotes that x is an element
of the set S. If x is not a member of S, write
x ∉ S.
Example
If A is the set of even numbers less than 11, then
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Hence, 2 ∈ A, 4 ∈ A, 6 ∈ A,
8 ∈ A, 10 ∈ A but 12 ∉A.
 Sets & elements
SETS
- can consist of elements of various natures: people,
physical objects, numbers, signs, other sets, etc.
- Sets can be finite or infinite.
Examples
1) the set of students in this room (finite)
2) the set of letters of the English language (finite)
3) the set of natural numbers (infinite)
4) costumers of a bank (infinite)
5) Mathematics faculty of USC (finite)
 Sets & elements
Null set or empty set - set which has no members at all.
Singleton set - a set with only one member

Notation: Use,
1) A, B, C, … for sets;
2) a, b, c, … or x, y, z, … for members;
3) b ∈ A if b belongs to A,
4) B ∈ A if both A & B are sets, & B is a member of A,
5) c ∉ A, if c doesn’t belong to A, and
6) ∅ is used for the empty set.
•  
 Specifications of a Set
Interval Notation
Used to describe subsets of sets upon which an order is
defined, e.g., numbers.
[a, b] = {x / a ≤ x ≤ b} [a, ∞) = {x / x > a}
[a, b) = {x / a ≤ x < b} (a, ∞) = {x / x > a}
(a, b] = {x / a < x ≤ b} (-∞, a] = {x / x < a}
(a, b) = {x / a < x < b} (-∞, a) = {x / x < a}

[a, b] → closed interval

(a, b) → open interval
[a, b) and (a, b] → half-open intervals
 PRACTICE
List the elements of each given set.
1) The set A of odd numbers less than 25 that are multiple
of 3.
2) The set B of square numbers less than 20.
3) The set C of months that starts with a letter J.
4) The set D of Philippine presidents from year 1980
to present.
5) The set E of recent top 5 cities in the Philippines with
the highest crime rates.
 PRACTICE (ANSWERS)
List the elements of each given set.
1) A = {3, 9, 15, 21}
2) B = {…, 1/9, ¼, ½, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16}
3) C = {January, June, July}
4) D = {Ferdinand Marcos, Corazon Aquino, Fidel Ramos,
Joseph Estrada, Glora Arroyo, Benigno Aquino,
Rodrigo Duterte}
5) E = {Santiago Isabela, Angeles Pampanga, Olongapo
Zambales, Puerto Princesa Palawan, Naga City}
 PRACTICE
Rewrite each set using predicate notation.
1) A = {rhombus, square, rectangle, trapezoid, trapezium,
parallelogram, quadrilateral}
2) B = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70}
3) C = {STEM, AMB, HUMSS}
4) D = {Gen Math, Stat, Pre-calculus, Calculus}
5) E = {Excellence, Leadership, Integrity, Commitment,
Evangelization, Social Responsibility}
 PRACTICE (ANSWERS)
Rewrite each set using predicate notation.
1) A = {a/a is a 4-sided polygon}
2) B = {b/b is a multiple of 10 less than 71}
3) C = {c/c is a SHS academic strand offered in USC}
4) D = {d/d is a math subject for SHS under STEM
strand}
5) E = {e/e is a core value of USC}
 PRACTICE
Rewrite each set using interval notation.
1) 12 < x < 20
2) 12 < x < 20
3) 12 < x < 20
4) 12 < x < 20
5) 10 < x < 100
6) x > 5
7) x < 5
8) x < 5
9) x > 5
 PRACTICE (ANSWERS)
Rewrite each set using interval notation.
1) 12 < x < 20 Ans. (12, 20)
2) 12 < x < 20 Ans. (12, 20]
3) 12 < x < 20 Ans. [12, 20)
4) 12 < x < 20 Ans. [12, 20]
5) 10 < x < 100Ans. (10, 100)
6) x > 5 Ans. (5, ∞)
7) x < 5 Ans. (-∞, 5]
8) x < 5 Ans. (-∞, 5)
9) x > 5 Ans. {5, ∞)
•  

 
 PRACTICE
What is the cardinality of each set? Determine
which sets are identical.
1) A = {a, e, i, o, u}
2) B = {x/x is a consonant}
3) C = {x/x is a vowel letter}
4) D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
5) E = {x/x is a multiple of 2 but less than 20}
PRACTICE (ANSWERS)
What is the cardinality of each set? Determine
which sets are identical.
1) /A/ = 5 Sets A and C are identical.
2) /B/ = 21 Sets D and E are identical.
3) /C/ = 5
4) /D/ = 9
5) /E/ = 9
 Universal Set
The universal set, U is the set
containing everything currently
under consideration.
- content depends on the context.
- sometimes explicitly stated,
sometimes implicit
 KINDS OF SETS
Usually by a set we mean a collection of elements
where the ordering of the elements in the set does
not matter and no element is repeated.
Example: The set {3, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4} is actually thought
of as {1, 2, 3, 4}.

But in some contexts, we may have to allow

repetitions. We call them multisets.
Example: The multiset {1, 1, 2} is different from
{1, 2} is different from {1, 1, 1, 2}.
 KINDS OF SETS

Sometimes, we care about the ordering of

the elements in the set. We call them ordered
sets. They are sometimes referred as lists or
strings or vectors.

Example:
The ordered set {1, 2, 3} is different from
{2, 1, 3}.
We can also have ordered multi-sets.
•  
 PRACTICE
Write all the subsets of each given set.
1) A = {2, 4, 6}

2) B = {March, May}

3) C = {a, e, i, o, u}
 PRACTICE
Write all the subsets of each given set.
1) A = {2, 4, 6}
Subsets of A = { }, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4},
{2,6}, {4,6}, {2,4,6}

2) B = {March, May}
Subsets of B = { }, {March}, {May},
{March, May}
 PRACTICE
Write all the subsets of each given set.
3) C = {a, e, i, o, u}
Subsets of C = { }, {a}, {e}, {i}, {o}, {u}, {a,
e},
{a, i}, {a, o}, {a, u}, {e, i}, {e, o}, {e, u}, {i, o},
{i, u}, {o, u}, {a, e, i}, {a, e, o}, {a, e, u},
{a, i, o}, {a, i, u}, {a, o, u}, {e, i, o}, {e, i, u},
{e, o, u}, {i, o, u}, {a, e, i, o}, {a, e, i, u},
{a, e, o, u}, {a, i, o, u}, {e, i, o, u},
{a, e, i, o, u}
 Challenge question

How will you determine the number of

subsets of a set with n number
of elements?
 Challenge question

How will you determine the number of subsets

of a set with n number of elements?

Formula: 2n

where n is the number of elements

•  

DETERMINE IF EACH STATEMENT IS TRUE?

•  
•  

(Exclusive union)

A ∪ B = {x / x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ (A ∩ B)}
(inclusive union)
 SET OPERATIONS
Set union
•  

 
 SET OPERATIONS
•  
 SET OPERATIONS
Set intersection
• 

=
=

=
 SET OPERATIONS
Complement of a Set
Notation: Ac or  or A’
A’ is the set of elements NOT in A.
 SET OPERATIONS
Example
Given: U = {set of even numbers less than 20}
Find the complement of each given set relative U.
1) A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
2) B = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
3) C = {6, 12, 18}
•  
•  
•  
 Relations and Functions
▪ In natural language relations are a kind of
links existing between objects.

Examples:
‘mother of’, ‘neighbor of’, “part of”,
‘is older than’, ‘is an ancestor of’,
‘is a subset of’, etc. These are binary relations.

Formally, we will define relations between

elements of sets.
 Relations and Functions

•  
 Relations and Functions
Cartesian
Product of
Sets

A×B = {(a, p), (a, q), (a, r), (b, p), (b, q), (b, r)}
 Relations and Functions

Relation
R = {(a, p), (a, r), (b, q)}
Note: R ⊆ A × B
 Relations and Functions
Examples of Relation

1) The relation, TALL defined on a set of

students in a class where (a, b) ∈ R if the
height of a is greater than the height of b.

2) The relation between A and B where

A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {3, 4, 5} with R given
by: R = {(0, 3), (0, 4), (1, 4)}.
 Relations and Functions
Examples of Relation
3) The relation less than (<) between ℜ and ℜ is
given by: {(x, y) ∈ ℜ2 , x < y}
4) A bank may represent the relationship between the set
of accounts & the set of customers by a relation. The
implementation of a bank account could be a positive
integer with at most eight digits. The relationship between
accounts & customers may be done with a relation
R ⊆ A × B, with the set A chosen to be the set of natural
numbers, & the set B chosen to be the set of all human
beings alive or dead. The set A could also be chosen to
be: A = {n ∈ ℵ: n < 108}.
 Relations and Functions
If A and B are any sets and R ⊆ A × B, we
call R a binary relation from A to B or a
binary relation between A and B. A relation
R ⊆ A × A is called a relation in or on A. The
set, dom R = {a / (a, b)∈ R for some b} is
called the domain of the relation R and the
set, range R = {b / (a, b)∈ R for some a} is
called the range of the relation R.
 •  

{(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
 

Give examples of relation for each cross product.

1) R = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 2)}
2) R = {(1, a), (1, c), (2, b), (2, c)}
3) R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
 TRY THIS!
Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, and define the relation R
on A by (x, y) ∈ ℜ if and only if x divides y.

Answer:
R = {(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (4, 4),
(4, 8), (6, 6), (8, 8)}
 TRY THIS!
Let A = R, and define the relation R on ℜ by
(x, y) ∈ ℜ if and only if y = x2.

Answer:
R = {…, (-2, 4), (-1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4),
(3, 9), (4, 16), …}
R = {(x, y) / x ∈ ℜ & y ∈ ℜ, y = x2}

Note: R consists of all points on the

parabola, y = x2.
•  

R’ = {(a, c), (b, d), (b, e)}

•  
•  
•  

R = {(d, a), (e, a), (c, b)}

•  
 Functions
A relation F from A to B is a function from A to B
if and only if it meets both of the following
conditions:
1) Each element in the domain of F is paired
with just one element in the range.
2) The domain of F is equal to A, dom F = A.
•  
•  
•  

NOT A FUNCTION
 FUNCTIONS
Functions as processes. Sometimes functions
are considered in a different way, as
processes, something like devices or boxes
with inputs and outputs. We put the argument
in the input and get the value of the function
in output. In this case, the set of ordered
pairs in our definition is called the graph of
the function.
 FUNCTIONS
I
n
p
u
t
5 Output

3
 FUNCTIONS
Set of outputs
I is called range.
n
p
u
t

5
3 Output

Set of inputs is
called domain.
 Types of Function
▪ A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one
(or injective), if the images of distinct elements
of X under f are distinct.

A function F: A → B is called one-to-one

function (or injective), if no member of B is
assigned to more than one member of A
(so if a ≠ b, then F(a) ≠ F(b)).
 Types of Function

▪ A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or

surjective), if every element of Y is the image of
some element of X under f.

Functions from A to B in the general case are said

to be into B. If the range of the function
equals B, then the function is onto B (or
surjective).
 Types of Function

▪ A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and

onto (or bijective), if f is both one -one and
onto.
A function which is both one-to-one and onto is
called a one-to-one correspondence
(or bijective).
 Types of Function
A B A B A B
 Types of Function

Which of the following functions are one-to-

one, onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.
NOT INJECTIVE NOR
SURJECTIVE

INJECTIVE

BIJECTIVE

NOT INJECTIVE
BUT SURJECTIVE
 Types of Function

Which of the following functions are one-to-

one, onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.
Neither INJECTIVE NOR
SURJECTIVE
There exists at least two elements of real numbers (1st set), that have the same
corresponding pair (sine value) – still element of real number (2nd set).

Ex. Let π and - π be two members of the first set ℜ. Taking the sine of these two
real numbers would result to the same value – which is 0. Hence, f(x) = sin x is
not injective.

Why not surjective? The 2nd set is still ℜ. The range of f(x) = sin x is the set
[-1, 1]. Hence, the other members of the set ℜ would have no element in the
first set ℜ (no pair). Thus, the function is not surjective.
 Types of Function
Which of the following functions are one-to-
one, onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.
INJECTIVE

Task: We are to check if g(n) is injective, surjective or bijective over the

mapping, N to N.

The function is one to one (or injective) because every member of the first set
(set of natural numbers including 0) will have a unique pair in the second set.
Coz any natural number when added by 1 will still result to another natural
number, each is an element of the second set.

However, if we look at the second set – the first element which is 0, will have no
pair in the first set. One cannot find a natural number added to 1 so the result
will be 0. Hence, the function cannot be surjective.
 Types of Function
Which of the following functions are one-to-one,
onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.
BIJECTIVE

Task: We are to check if g(n) is injective, surjective or bijective over the

mapping, N to N.

Since the second set is redefined to exclude 0 as member. The function

Now becomes bijective. Every element in the 1st set will have a pair in the
second set. Likewise, every element in the 2nd set will have corresponding
element in the 1st set.
 Types of Function
Which of the following functions are one-to-one,
onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.
SURJECTIVE

Task: We are to check if r(x) is injective, surjective or bijective over the

mapping, ℜ to {0}.

The function is not one-to-one (or injective) since all elements in the first set will
have 0 as the pair in the second set. The function expresses many-to-one
relation. Nonetheless, since the 2nd set has 0 as only element (singleton set)
and has all elements in the 1st set as corresponding pairs, then the function is
surjective.
 Types of Function
Summary:
Injective – one to one relation. The function F on A to B is
injective if and only if no two elements in the first set (A) will
have the same corresponding pair of element in the second
set (B). Every element in A must have a pair in B.

Surjective – mapping of elements from B to A. The function

F on A to B is injective if and only if every element in the 2nd
set (B) will have some (at least one) corresponding pair of
element in the 1st set A. Every element in B is an image of
some element(s) in A.

Bijective – a function F on A to B is bijective if and only if it is

both injective and surjective.
 Types of Function
Which of the following functions are one-to-one,
onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.

1) f : ℜ → ℜ, f(x) = 2x BIJECTIVE

2) f : ℜ → ℜ, f(x) = x2 NEITHER INJECTIVE NOR SURJECTIVE

3) f : ℜ → [0, ∞) , f(x) = x2 . SURJECTIVE

4) f : ℜ+ → ℜ , f(x) = x2 . INJECTIVE

5) f : ℜ → ℜ , f(x) = x3 . BIJECTIVE
 Types of Function
Which of the following functions are one-to-one,
onto, or bijective? Justify your answer.

1) f : ℜ+ → ℜ , f(x) = 1/ x INJECTIVE

2) f : (-∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) → ℜ, f(x) = 1 / x INJECTIVE

3) f : (-∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) → (-∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞), BIJECTIVE

f(x) = (x + 3) / x
4) f : (2, ∞) →ℜ+ , f(x) = . BIJECTIVE

5) f : ℜ → Z , f(x) = . SURJECTIVE
 Practice Exercises (with answers)
Which of the following functions are one-to-one
(injective), onto (surjective), or bijective?

NEITHER INJECTIVE NOR SURJECTIVE

NEITHER INJECTIVE NOR SURJECTIVE

SURJECTIVE

INJECTIVE

5) f : ℜ → ℜ , f(x) = x4 . NEITHER INJECTIVE NOR SURJECTIVE

 Practice Exercises (with answers)
Which of the following functions are one-to-one
(injective), onto (surjective), or bijective?

6) f : ℜ → ℜ, f(x) = cos x NEITHER INJECTIVE NOR SURJECTIVE

INJECTIVE

SURJECTIVE

INJECTIVE

10) f : ℜ → [0, ∞) , f(x) = x4 . SURJECTIVE

Elementary
Logic
 Some Elementary Logic
LOGIC
• allows us to determine the validity of arguments in
and out of mathematics
• illustrates the importance of precision and
conciseness of the language of mathematics

STATEMENT OF PROPOSITION
• must express a complete thought
• a declarative statement that is true or false
but not both
 Some Elementary Logic
Example
Determine whether each statement is a proposition.
1) All multiples of 9 are odd.
2) Let n be a natural number.
3) Sketch the graph of f(x) = (x - 2)2 + 5.
4) A square is a rectangle.
5) 2 + 3 = 6
6) 2 + 3 = 5
7) 3x – x = 5 + x
8) Leyte is in Region VII.
9) Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
10) Hongkong is the capital of China.
 Some Elementary Logic
Example
Determine whether each statement is a proposition.
1) All multiples of 9 are odd. Proposition
2) Let n be a natural number. Not a Proposition
3) Sketch the graph of f(x) = (x - 2)2 + 5. Not a Proposition
4) A square is a rectangle. Proposition
5) 2 + 3 = 6 Proposition
6) 2 + 3 = 5 Proposition
7) 3x – x = 5 + x Not a Proposition
8) Leyte is in Region VII. Proposition
9) Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Proposition
10) Hongkong is the capital of China. Proposition
 Logical Connectives
• the mathematical equivalent of a conjunction -
that is, a word (or symbol ) that joins two
sentences to produce a new one
• an operation that combines two propositions to
yield a new one whose truth value depends
only on the truth value of the two original
propositions
• Compound propositions - are built up by
combining propositions using propositional
connectives
 Let P and Q be Statements
Read as Truth Value
Conjunction: P and Q True, if & only if P and
P∧Q Q are both true
Disjunction: P or Q True if & only if P is
P∨Q true or Q is true or
both are true.
Implication: P implies Q True under all
P⇒Q If P, then Q circumstances except
Q if P when P is true and Q
(Conditional) P only if Q is False.

Bi-conditional: P if and only if Q True if & only if P and

P⇔Q (P iff Q) Q are both true or both
false.
 Ways to Express the Conditional
Statement (Implication)
• If P, then Q.
• P is sufficient for Q
• Q if P
• Q when P
• A necessary condition for P is Q
• Q follows from P
• P only if Q
• Q unless not P
LOGIC SYMBOLS
 Negation
• Symbol: (or ∼ )
• Meaning: NOT
• P is true if and only if P is not true.

Example:
• Angles A and B are vertical angles
• Negation: Angles A and B are not
vertical angles.
 Logical Connectives

Examples
Let
P: It is raining. Q: The sand gets wet.

Express the following using logical connectors.

1) If it is raining, then the sand gets wet.

2) It is raining or the sand gets wet.
3) It is raining and the sand gets wet.
4) The sand gets wet if and only if it is raining.
5) The sand gets wet or it is raining.
 Logical Connectives

Examples
Let
P: It is raining. Q: The sand gets wet.

Express the following using logical connectors.

1) If it is raining, then the sand gets wet.

2) It is raining or the sand gets wet.
3) It is raining and the sand gets wet.
4) The sand gets wet if and only if it is raining.
5) The sand gets wet or it is raining.
 Logical Connectives

Examples
In every item, indicate what statement P, Q or R might stand for then
express the item using the correct symbol ( ).

1) Either Ganymede is a moon of Jupiter or Ganymede is a

moon of Saturn
2) Paris is the capital of France and Paris has a population of
over two million.
3) A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is
divisible by 3.
4) Jack’s pet is either a cat or a dog.
5) Sophie is going to the store today, but Mary isn’t.
 Logical Connectives
Examples
Let: P: The store is open today.
Q: Mary is going to the store today.
R: Sophie is going to the store today.

Translate each symbol (group of symbols) as English statements.

 Ways to Express the Conditional
Statement (Implication)
Express each conditional statement below in
at least 5 ways.
1) If you show respect to others, then you’ll
beget respect.
2) If you sow a good seed, then you will reap a
good harvest.
3) You will pass your exam, if you study hard.
4) You will pass MMW, if you will comply all
requirements.
More on Conditional Statements

• Implication: If P then Q.
• P is the antecedent or hypothesis
• Q is the consequent or conclusion
• Converse: If Q then P.
• Inverse: If not P then not Q.
• Contrapositive: If not Q then not P.
 Ways to Express the Conditional
Statement

Express the conditional statement for the

given propositions in many ways. Write the
inverse, converse and contrapositive.

P: Maria earns a college degree.

Q: Maria will find a good job.
 Ways to Express the Conditional
Statement
Possible Answers:

1) If Maria earns a college degree, then she will find a good job.
2) Earning a college degree is sufficient for Maria to find a good job.
3) Maria will find a good job if she earns a college degree.
4) Maria will find a good job when she earns a college degree.
5) A necessary condition for Maria to earn a college degree is to
find a good job.
6) Finding a good job follows from earning a college degree.
7) Maria earns a college degree only if she will find a good job.
8) Maria will find a good job unless she doesn’t earn a college degree.
 Ways to Express the Conditional
Statement
Possible Answers:
1) If Maria earns a college degree, then she will find
a good job.

Converse: If Maria will find a good job, then she

earns a college degree.
Inverse: If Maria doesn’t earn a college degree,
then she will not find a good job.
Contrapositive: If Maria will not find a good job,
then she doesn’t earn a college degree.
PRACTICE EXERCISES
 PRACTICE EXERCISES
A. What is the negation of each of these
propositions?
1) Steve has more than 100 GB free disk space
on his laptop.
2) Xian blocks e-mails and texts from Jen.
3) 7×11×13 = 999
4) Lian rode her bike 100 km on Sunday.
5) Stephen was late to class last Monday.
 PRACTICE EXERCISES
B. Let P and Q be the propositions
P: It is below freezing.
Q: It is snowing.

Write these propositions using P and Q and logical

connectives.

1) It is below freezing and snowing.

2) It is below freezing but not snowing.
3) It is not below freezing and it is not snowing.
4) It is either snowing or below freezing or both.
5) Either it is below freezing or it is snowing, but it is not
snowing if it is below freezing.
 PRACTICE EXERCISES
C. Write each of these statements in the form “if P, then Q”
in English.
1) I should have remembered to send you the address only if
you sent an e-mail message.
2) To be a citizen of this country, it is sufficient that you were
born in the Philippines.
3) That you get the job implies that you had the best
credentials.
 PRACTICE EXERCISES
D. Write each of these statements in the form “P if and
only if Q” in English.

4) For you to win the contest it is necessary and sufficient that

you have the only winning ticket.
5) If it is hot outside you buy an ice cream cone, and if you buy
an ice cream cone it is hot outside.
6) If you watch TV your mind will decay, and conversely.
 PRACTICE EXERCISES
E. State the CONVERSE, CONTRAPOSITIVE,
and INVERSE of each of these conditional
statements.

1) If it rains today, then I will stay at home.

2) I come to class whenever there is going to
be a quiz.
3) A positive integer is a prime only if it has no
divisors other than 1 and itself.
 Quantification
• A construct that specifies the quantity of
specimens in the domain of discourse that
satisfy an open formula.
• Two fundamental types:
• Universal Quantification: “for all” or “for every”.
Symbol:
• Existential Quantification: “there exists”
or “for some”.
Symbol:
 Quantification
Note: When quantifying statements using the
universal and existential quantifiers the domain of
discourse must always be specified. Without
them the quantification of the statement is not
defined.

Domain of discourse or universe of

discourse = Domain, D
(the set of possible values for the free variables)
 PRECEDENCE OF QUANTIFIERS
& BINDING VARIABLES

The quantities and have higher precedence than ALL logical

operators from propositional calculus.

EX. means ?

Binding variables
▪ When a quantifier is used on the variable x, we say that this occurrence
of the variable is bound.
▪ An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier or set
equal to a particular value is said to be free.

EX. In the statement the variable ? is bound by the

quantification ?? , but the variable ??? is free because it is not
bound by a quantifier and no value is assigned to this variable.
 Quantifiers
Statement How to read When TRUE? When FALSE?

“For all x, P(x) is T.”

P(x) is T for There’s an x for
“For all x, P(x).”
“Every x, P(x).” every x. which P(x) is F.
“For each …”
“For any …”
“Given any …”

“There exists an x s.t.

There’s an x P(x) is F for
P(x) is T.”
“There’s an x s.t. P(x).” for which P(x) every x.
“There’s at least one x
is T.
…”
“For some x, P(x).”
“For at least one x … ”
 Logical Equivalences Involving
Quantifiers

Meaning: We can distribute a universal

quantifier over a conjunction and an
existential quantifier over a disjunction.

However, we cannot distribute a universal

quantifier over a disjunction, nor an
existential quantifier over a conjunction.
Examples
1. Let P(x): x+1 > x and the domain of discourse be set of
all real numbers. What is the truth value of the following?
a) P(– 2) b) P(0) c) d)

2. Let and the domain consists of positive

integers not exceeding 4.
a) Q(4) b) Q(1) c) d)

3. Let and domain is the set of all integers.

a) Q(0, 3) c) Q( – 2 , 1) e)
b) d) f)

4 Let and domain is the set of all real nos.

a) b) c)
 Negating Quantified Expressions
Negate the statement:
“Every student in class has taken Calculus.”

Let P(x): “x has taken Calculus” and domain be students in

class .

De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers

Negation Equivalent When is negation When is negation
Statement T? F?

For every x, P(x) is There’s an x for

F. which P(x) is T.

There’s an x for P(x) is T for

which P(x) is F. every x.
Translating from English into Logical
Expressions
LET: P(x) = “x is a lion” Q(x) = “x is fierce”
R(x) = “x drinks coffee” domain of discourse = the set of all creatures

Translate the following:

1. All lions are fierce.
2. Some lions do not drink coffee.
3. Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.

LET: P(x) = “x is a hummingbird” Q(x) = x is large”

R(x) = “x lives on honey” S(x) = “x is richly colored”
Translate: domain = set of birds
1. All hummingbirds are richly colored.
2. No large birds live on honey.
3. Birds that don’t live on honey are dull in color.
4. Hummingbirds are small.
 Practice Exercises
Express each of these statements using quantifiers.
Then form the negation of the statement. Next, express
the negation in simple English. (Don’t simply use the
phrase “It is not the case that…”)

1. Some old dogs can learn new tricks.

2. No rabbit knows calculus.
3. Every bird can fly.
4. There is no dog that can talk.
5. There is no one in this class who knows French
and Russian.
 Practice Exercises
6) Let P(x): “x is a graduate of STEM strand”.
Let the domain of discourse be the students in this class.

Translate: Every student in this class is a graduate of

STEM strand.

7) Let P(x): “2x – 1 < x, Domain is the set of real numbers.

Determine the truth value of the following:
a)   b) 

8) Let C(x): x2 + 1 > 0

a)   b)  
 Negating Quantifiers
Rewrite each of the following so that the negations
appear only within the predicates:
a)

b)

c)

d)
Collaborative works of:

Jennefer M. Piramide,
Teodora J. Punzalan &
Jovita N. Ravina