Name: Sajeel Khan

Roll # : M.Phil-SSP-03-F-19
Subject: X-Ray Diffraction(SSP 512)
Submitted To: Dr. Shahid Atiq Sb
Basis And Lattice Points
A lattice Point is a hypothetical regular and periodic
arrangement of points in space. All the points have the
same surrounding in the same orientation
It is used to describe the structure of crystal.
A basis is a atom or group of atoms associated with each
lattice point in crystal.
lattice + basis = crystal
 Lattice types in 2D
There are 5 lattice types in 2-D.
Oblique
Rectangular
Centered Rectangular
Hexagonal
Square
 Lattice types in 3D
There are 7 lattice types in 3-D
The first five decreasing in symmetry.
Start with cube at the top and distorting progressively
The other two don’t fit into sequence of decreasing
Symmetry.
 Rhombohedral formed by cube stretched or
Compressed along diagonal
Planes and Directions
Planes are determined by Miller indices (hkl)
In cubic system (100) means 3 sets (100(010)(001)
[uvw] with square brackets indicates one direction
through the lattice
<uvw> indicates [uvw] and all the similar direction which
are related by symmetry
In cubic system <100> means six directions
 Miller’s and Weber’s indices
Planes
  are known by their Miller indices (h k l) and directions (u,v,w)
Find the intercepts of plane along three crystallographic axes
Take reciprocal of these intercepts
If fractions, remove these fractions by multiplying with a suitable numbers
Enclose the resultant set of numbers in small brackets, i.e. ( )
These are required hkl values of required plane
(hkl) means a set of parallel planes
 means all the set of planes
[uvw] describe the direction of planes
Direction of hexagonal lattice is given by weber indices [uvjw]
J= -(u+v)
Zone of planes
A
  group of Planes with a common line of intersection is called a Zone of planes.
The line of intersection is the zone axis
Three sets of planes (), () and () belong to one zone if the determinant is zero.
The planes (111),(110) and (11) belong to one zone because their determinant is zero.
Atomic/fractional Coordinates
A crystal structure is described by fractional coordinates xyz of each
atom in the unit cell.
Fractional coordinates of Cu structure

The fractional coordinates of the four atoms are 000

½½0 0½½ ½0½
Twinned crystals
 If a crystal has two parts, which are symmetrically related to each
other, the crystal is called a Twinned Crystal.
Depending upon the symmetry operation involved there are two main
types of twinned crystal.
If the symmetry operation involved is rotation about an axes, this leads
to Annealing twins.
If the symmetry operation involved is reflection across a plane, this
lead Deformation Twins
Real and reciprocal lattices
Production Of X-Rays
 X-rays are produced when high speed electrons with sufficient
kinetic energy hit metal target (Mo,Cu,Fe,Ni,Co,Cr )
Most of KE is lost as heat and less than 1% energy is transformed into
x-rays,
 Characteristics X-Rays
Characteristic X-rays were discovered by W.H.Bragg

Kα1: 0.709 Å
Kα2 : 0.710 Å
Kβ1 : 0.632 Å
Absorption of X-rays
 Interaction of X-rays with matter results in partial transmission and
partial absorption ((Photoelectric effect and Compton effect)
Long wavelengths are easily absorbed (soft X rays)
Short wavelengths are highly penetrating (hard rays )
Intensity I of an X-ray beam decreases as it passes through any
homogeneous medium and is proportional to the distance
traversed x. This is given by
proportionality constant µ is called the linear
absorption coefficient
 Filters
Filters are used to block or reduce the intensity of Kβ
Filter is made of material whose K absorption edge lies between Kα and Kβ
X-ray diffraction requires monochromatic radiation
Filtration is never perfect
Detection Of X-Rays
Fluorescent screens (ZnS with trace of Ni)
Photographic Film
Geiger Counter, Proportional Counter,
Scintillation detector
Coherent and Incoherent scattering
Scattering occurs when an X-ray photon interacts with one of
the electrons of the absorbing element. If this collision is elastic
(no energy is lost in the collision process), the scattering is said
to be coherent
If this collision is inelastic (energy is lost in the collision
process), the scattering is said to be Incoherent