CHAPTER 5

BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL

SYSTEMS

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

• Sensor/Transmitter

• Control Valves

• Controllers
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS

• Sensor: Instrument which uses a phenomenon (Mechanical, Electrical and

the like), related to the process variable it measures, to produce an output
signal.

• Transmitter: Converts the primary into a final signal that can be

transmitted.

The purpose of the sensor/transmitter is to generate a signal (The transmitter

output, c(t) [%TO]) related to the process variable. It performs the
measurement (M) in the control system.
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
IMPORTANT TERMS

 • Zero of the Instrument:

• Range:

• Span:
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE

 Relationship between the Process Variable () and the transmitter output

() should be ideally linear.

𝑑𝑐 (𝑡 ) 100
𝜏  𝑇 + 𝑐 ( 𝑡 )= ( 𝑃𝑉 (𝑡 ) − 𝑃𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁
 𝑑𝑐 (𝑡 ) 100
𝜏  𝑇 + 𝑐 ( 𝑡 )= ( 𝑃𝑉 (𝑡 ) − 𝑃𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE:
TRANSFER FUNCTION

 
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE: Non-linearity: Variable Gain

 
Ideally, relationships between and should be linear (constant gain, ). Often
this is the case, but sometimes not, e.g. a differential pressure sensor used to
measure flow.
(Operation Principle: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUd4WxjoHKY)

Due to its operation principle, the relationship between and is:

 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE: Non-linearity: Variable Gain

 If process were linear:

Therefore, the actual gain changes as the flow itself changes (See Fig.)

1.5
k T / k'T

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
f/fmax
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE: Non-linearity: Variable
Gain:
Tackling the Problem

 
As seen above, flow sensor/transmitters (among others) show non-linear
behavior. Nevertheless, most modern distributed control systems offer
automatic square root extraction of signals. Thus, the combination of
sensor/transmitter/sqrt is linear with a constant gain of:
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
Noise

Signal Filtering:

The challenge is to remove noise

without altering the original signal.
It involves trend identification, thus
it causes delay
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE: Noise
Signal Filtering

Example:
First order filter:

 
The grater the value of , the better the noise
filtering, but the greater the delay.
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
MODELLING PERSPECTIVE: Noise
Tackling the Problem
9

6
Current (mA)

5 Original Signal
Filtered Signal, T=4s
4 Filtered Signal, T=10s
Filtered Signal, T=15s
3

1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
t (s)
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
COMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE (1)
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS:
COMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE (2)

Calculate the difference due to data loss.

 CONTROL VALVES

• The most common final control element.

• Perform the action (A) function.

• Act as a restriction in a process pipe. By changing its opening it changes

resistance to flow and, therefore, the flow itself, i.e., it throttles flow.

• The controller output signal is the input to the valve, while flow is its
output.
 CONTROL VALVE
An air pressure actuator is the most common (despite electronic
instrumentation) due to its high reliability and low maintenance of pneumatic
actuators. Thus, an I/P transducer is often used.
 CONTROL VALVE ACTUATOR
(PNEUMATIC)
 
It consists of diaphragm and a spring, with the diaphragm attached to a
stem, which positions the flow restriction in the valve body. It converts the
controller output signal, [%CO], into the valve position, .

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiyOHzgSa-s
 CONTROL VALVE ACTUATOR
Pneumatically operated control valve

Typical pressure range: 3-15 psig (less common: 6-30 psig or 3-27 psig)
 CONTROL VALVE ACCESORIES
• Positioner: Device which compares the signal from the controller with the actual
valve stem position. It is an internal position control loop which adds or exhausts
air from the valve until the correct valve position is obtained.

Tends to minimize effects of:

o Lag in large capacity actuators.

o Stem friction due to tight stuffing boxes.

o Changes in process line pressure.

o Hysteresis.
 CONTROL VALVE ACCESORIES

• Limit Switches: Devices mounted on the side of valves, which trigger

alarms, lights, solenoid valves, and the like (security devices).
 CONTROL VALVE ACTION
 
“What do I want the valve to do if energy supply fails?”
The preceding question concerns to the “fail position” or “action” of the valve,
and safety must be the main consideration to answer this question.

• Fail Closed (FC) or Air to Open (AO): When the safest position is the closed
position.

• Fail Open (FO) or Air to Close (AC): When the safest position is the open
position
 SELECTION EXAMPLE OF CONTROL
VALVE ACTION
In the flash drum steam is condensed in a coil to partially evaporate the liquid
feed and separate its components into vapor and liquid product.
 SELECTION EXAMPLE OF CONTROL
VALVE ACTION
In the flash drum steam is condensed in a coil to partially evaporate the liquid
feed and separate its components into vapor and liquid product.
FO

FC

FC
 CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY

 
According to the convention adopted by control valve manufacturers, the
flow capacity of a control valve is determined by its capacity factor or flow
coefficient, (1944, Masoneilan International, Inc.).

: It “is the flow in U.S. gallons per minute (gpm) of water that flows through
a valve at a pressure drop of 1 psi across the valve
CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY
Catalogue
 CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY
LIQUID SERVICE
 
• is the liquid flow, in

• is the pressure drop across the valve, in

• is the specific gravity of the liquid at flowing conditions

• is the flow coefficient, in

 CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY
LIQUID SERVICE

 When sizing a control valve, steady-state conditions or “nominal conditions” must be known.

Obviously, the flow coefficient of the valve (when wide open) must be greater than because
the valve must be able to increase flow beyond its nominal value. Therefore, the
overcapacity factor, , of the valve is defined as follows:
 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISITICS
 
The of a control valve depends on . It varies from zero when , and when . This
variation allows the valve to regulate flow. The particular function relating to is
known as the inherent valve characteristics.
 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISITICS
 
• Quick Opening: Most of the variation of the flow coefficient occurs in the lower third of
the valve travel. They are suitable for release valves and on/off control systems.
• Linear: The flow coefficient is proportional to the valve position:

• Equal-Percentage: The respective function is:

Where is the rangeability factor, and its usual values are 25, 50 and 100. The actual
characteristic curve deviates from the equation below in the lower 5% of the valve
travel. The exponential function has the property that equal increments in valve position
result in equal relative or percentage increments in the valve coefficient.
 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISITICS:
LINEAR VALVES
 • Linear: As said before, the flow coefficient is proportional to the valve position:

o Fail Closed:

o Fail Open:
 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISITICS:
EQUAL-PERCENTAGE VALVES
 • Equal-Percent:

o Fail Closed:

o Fail Open:
 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISITICS
 Look for a control valve Catalog (Masoneilan, Fischer, etc) and model the
characteristics of a linear and an equal-percentage valve (with , compare their actual
characteristics with the models.

Linear

vp Cv
Cv
0,1 3,2 40
0,2 6,3 35
f(x) = 35.31 x − 1.22
0,3 9,5 30 R² = 1

0,4 12 25 Cv
Linear (Cv)
20
0,5 16
15
0,6 19
10
0,7 23
5
0,8 27 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0,9 31

1 35
CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISITICS
Equal-Percentage
vp Cv Cv (alpha=25) Cv (alpha=50) Cv (alpha=100)
0,1 1,7 3 1 1
0,2 2,3 4 2 1
0,3 3,2 5 3 2
0,4 5,1 7 4 3
0,5 8,7 9 7 5
0,6 17 13 10 7
0,7 26 18 14 12
0,8 34 24 21 18
0,9 41 33 31 29
1 46 46 46 46

50
45
40
35
30
Cv
25 Cv (alpha=25)
Cv (alpha=50)
20
Cv (alpha=100)
15
10
5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
 CONTROL VALVE SIZING

 To size a control valve you must:

• Determine the valve action (i.e., safe fail position).

• Determine , i.e., the required flow coefficient at nominal operating conditions.

• Determine , i.e., the required flow coefficient at critical operating conditions

(this is typically determined considering the maximum flow requirements with
the minimum feasible pressure drop).

• Determine the valve characteristics (either linear or EP).

 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
A THUMB RULE TO DETERMINE THE VALVE
CHARACTERISTICS
  provide the controller’s output with an even operation range in both directions
To
(Upwards and downwards), it is desirable to set its bias at . Thus, regardless the valve
action, the ideal nominal valve position is:

Replace the above result into both the linear and the EP valve equations:

Linear Valve:

Equal-Percentage Valve: , then:

 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
EXERCISE
The jacketed reactor requires a coolant stream to control the (exothermal) reaction
temperature. The coolant (water) is contained in a storage tank, with a flow manipulated
by a Fail-Open control valve.

 
Then input data is shown below:
 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
EXERCISE
 
Nominal Conditions: Flow and Pressure Drop
The nominal flow is . The nominal (manometric or ‘gage’) pressure at point 1 will be:

*Recall that

On the other hand, the nominal (gage) pressure at point 2’ will be:

Thus, the pressure at point 2 will be:

The nominal pressure drop across the valve is then:

 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
EXERCISE
 
Critical Conditions: Flow and Pressure Drop
The maximum flow is:

Recall that remains constant. Moreover, the critical condition (i.e., that demanding more
flow capacity to the valve) will take place when the flow is maximum and the pressure drop
across the valve is minimum, i.e.:

The minimum (gage) pressure at point 1 will be:

The minimum pressure drop is then:

 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
EXERCISE
 Calculating Flow Coefficients

The nominal flow coefficient is:

The maximum flow coefficient is:

The overcapacity factor is:

 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
EXERCISE
 Determining the Valve Characteristics
Recalling the thumb rule to determining a valve’s characteristics:

Linear Valve:

Equal-Percentage Valve: , then:

We realize that, in this scenario, the overcapacity factor () lies in the midpoint between 2
and 5. Therefore, the thumb rule is not enough. We will use, then, another criterion.
 CONTROL VALVE SIZING:
EXERCISE
 Determining the Valve Characteristics
Recalling the thumb rule to determining a valve’s characteristics:

Linear Valve:

Equal-Percentage Valve: , then:

We realize that, in this scenario, the overcapacity factor () lies in the midpoint between 2
and 5. Therefore, the thumb rule is not enough. We will use, then, another criterion*.

*We will try with both a linear and an EP valve with , and we will check the controller
output’s bias (). We will choose the model producing the closest to .
 CONTROL VALVE SIZING: EXERCISE
 
Linear Valve:
Since the valve is FO:

Then:

Equal-Percentage Valve ():

Since the valve is FO:

Then:

With the EP valve we can set the bias closer to midscale. Thus, we can choose these
characteristics, unless money is an important issue, since linear valves are cheaper.
 CONTROL VALVE GAIN AND TRANSFER FUNCTION:

 Gain for a linear valve:

Gain for an equal-percentage valve:

And the transfer function is:

 CONTROLLERS

• The “Brain” of the control loop.

• Performs the decision (D) operation in the control system.

 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS

• The controller compares the process signal it receives, the controlled

variable, with the setpoint.

• It sends an appropriate output signal to the final control element in order

to maintain the controlled variable at its setpoint.
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
ACTION OF CONTROLLERS

• If signal from the temperature transmitter increases, the controller output signal must
decrease. This is called “reverse action”.
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
ACTION OF CONTROLLERS

• If signal from the level transmitter increases, the controller output signal must increase.
This is called “direct action”.
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
ACTION OF CONTROLLERS:
Summary

In order to correctly determine the action of a controller it is necessary to

know:
• The process requirements for control.
• The fail-safe action of the control valve or any other final control
element.
 FEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
DEFINITION OF “ERROR”

 
Feedback controllers can be classified according to the equations that
describe their operation. These equations are all based on the difference
between the set point and the controlled variable (in %TO). This difference
or “error” is computed as follows:
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P)
 
Simplest type of feedback controller:

Where:
• : Controller output ()
• : bias value (), ideally set at mid-scale, i.e., .
• : Gain of the controller ()

If controller is reverse action. If , controller is direct action.

 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P):
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

 
Advantages:
• Simplicity.
• They have a single parameter to be tuned, i.e., .

Disadvantages:
Their mayor drawback is that the controlled variable is operated with an offset.
Offset can be defined as “a steady state-deviation of the controlled variable from
setpoint, or simply a steady-state error”.
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P):
OFFSET

The controller returns the controlled variable to a steady value, but it is “not enough
intelligent” to return it to the setpoint.
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P):
PROPORTIONAL BAND

 
Some manufacturers do not use the term for the tuning parameter, they use the term
“” instead.

In these cases:
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P):
TRANSFER FUNCTION

 
The P controller equation can be written this way:

Then, its transfer function is:

 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI)

 
In most processes, offset is not acceptable. Thus, an extra intelligence is required.
This extra intelligence, or new control mode, is an or action.

Here, is the integral or reset time, a new parameter which also needs to be
tuned.
Note that, the smaller the value of , the faster the controller integrates.
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI)
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI):
PERFORMANCE: P vs PI
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI):
RESET RATE

 
Some manufacturers do not use the term . They use its reciprocal, called
“reset rate”.
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI):
TRANSFER FUNCTION

 
Following the same procedure used to obtain the P controller transfer function,
the PI controller transfer function can be obtained, and it looks like:
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
(PID):

 
Sometimes, another control mode is added: the derivative action. Its purpose is to
anticipate where the process is heading by looking at the rate of change of error
(its derivative).

Where is a third parameter to be tuned.

 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
(PID):

What does anticipation mean?

Consider that the inlet temperature in
the heat exchanger of Figure 5-3.1
decreases
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
(PID):
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
• Anticipates trends in the controlled
• The PID algorithm reduces overshoot
• Reduces oscillations around setpoint.
Disadvantages:
• Not suited for fast process.
• Not suited for noisy processes (e.g., flow and liquid pressure loops).
• Requires further modifications to improve its performance.
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
(PID):
TRANSFER FUNCTION
 

Actually, when implemented with the above equation, PID controller does not work
really well. Thus, it is slightly changed as follows:

Notice that derivative mode is multiplied by a first-order filter with a time constant
of , usually with . This also can be re-organized as follows:
 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PROPORTIONAL DERIVATIVE
CONTROLLER (PD)
 It is used when offset is acceptable but some amount of anticipation is desired and
there is not noise:

Its ideal transfer function is:

Its actual or implemented transfer function is:

FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
MODIFICATIONS TO THE PID
CONTROLLER

Such a change in setpoint results in a

drastic change in the controller
output, which is unnecessary and
detrimental to the process operation.
This is caused by the derivative
component.
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
MODIFICATIONS TO THE PID
CONTROLLER
 
In order to tackle the previous problem, the following modification is proposed:
Since , when considering a time-invariant setpoint:

Then:
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
MODIFICATIONS TO THE PID
CONTROLLER
 Its transfer function is:
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
RESET WINDUP AND ITS PREVENTION

 
It may occur, whenever the
controller contains the integral
mode, that or .
 FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
RESET WINDUP AND ITS PREVENTION
 The block diagram represents:
Ingenious mathematical solution:
Reset Feedback
Then:

Which can be re-written as:

Then:
Problem 5-16
Problem 5-16

Reverse Action!
 Problem 5-16
 
Solution
The transmitter gain is: .
The setpoint is:
When the pressure is , the transmitter signal is:

The error is: .

Also, when , the valve is wide open, i.e., . Since we have a Fail-Open valve, . Then:
 Problem 5-16
 
Solution
The controller bias value is set at mid-scale, i.e., .
The P controller equation is:

Then, the controller gain is:

Since , we confirm that a reverse action controller is required.

The proportional band is:
Problem 5-17
Problem 5-17
 Problem 5-17
a)

Direct
Action
𝑚  2

𝑐  2
Direct
Action
𝑐  1
𝑚  1
 Problem 5-17
 
Solution
b) The pressure transmitter gain is:
The flow transmitter gain is:
The nominal valve position is . Since it is a FO valve: . Then:

The nominal flow is , which produces a nominal transmitter flow signal of:

Since there is no offset, . Since the master controller sets the flow setpoint:
 Problem 5-17
 Solution

c) The pressure setpoint, in units, is .

When the pressure is , this produces a signal of .
The error is:
Also, the flow controller’s setpoint is , which, in , is:

Since the master controller sets the flow setpoint:

The pressure controller is Proportional. Then:

Direct
The proportional band is: Action
 Problem 5-17
d)

Direct
Action
𝑚  2

𝑐  2
Reverse
Action
𝑐  1
𝑚  1

FC
Problem 5-19
Problem 5-19 d)
 Problem 5-19 d)
 Solution

a) The PI controller’s transfer function is:

b) The transmitter gain is:

The transmitter time constant is . The, the transmitter transfer function is:
 Problem 5-19 d)
Solution

c) The block diagram is shown below:

𝑇 𝑠𝑒𝑡 ( 𝑠) 𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑡 ( 𝑠)
 
°𝐶 
 
𝑘𝑠  
%𝑇𝑂
 
𝑇 (𝑠) 𝐶 (𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠) 𝑀 (𝑠)
 
°𝐶  𝐻 (𝑠)
 
%𝑇𝑂
 
  +¿
−  
 
 
%𝑇𝑂
 
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)
   
%𝐶𝑂
 
 Problem 5-19 d)
Solution
 

d) The PI controller’s equation is:

25

After a constant error of PI

P

20

15

M(t) (%CO)
Then, right after the error takes place: .
After : . After 10 min: 10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time (min)