Sampling & Sampling Distributions

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Reasons for Sampling

Sampling – A means for gathering useful information about

a population
Information gathered from sample, and conclusions drawn
Sampling vs. census has advantages
Sampling can save money.
Sampling can save time.
Reasons for Taking a Census

Eliminate the possibility that a random sample is

not representative of the population.
The person authorizing the study is uncomfortable with
sample information.
Sampling Frame

The sampling frame is…

a listing of items that make up the population
compiled from data sources such as population lists,
directories, or maps
Inaccurate or biased results can result if…
a frame excludes certain portions of the population
 you use different frames to generate data
 Types of Samples

Samples

Non-Probability Probability
SAMPLES SAMPLES

CONVENIEN
JUDGEMENT
CE
SAMPLE
SAMPLE

Simple
Systematic Stratified Cluster
random
SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPLE
SAMPLE
Types of Samples
Nonprobability Sample
In a nonprobability sample…
items included are chosen without regard to their
probability of occurrence.
Convenience sampling - items are selected based
only on the fact that they are easy, inexpensive, or
convenient to sample.
Judgment sampling - you get the opinions of
preselected
experts in the subject matter.
 Types of Samples
Probability Sample
In a probability sample, items in the
sample are chosen on the basis of known probabilities.

Probability samples

Simple random Systematic Stratified cluster

Random Versus Nonrandom Sampling

Nonrandom Sampling - Every unit of the population does not

have the same probability of being included in the sample
Random sampling - Every unit of the population has the same
probability of being included in the sample.
Probability Sample
Simple Random Sample
Every individual or item from the frame has an equal
chance of being selected
Selection may be…
with replacement (selected individual is returned
to the frame for possible reselection)
without replacement (selected individual is not
returned to the frame).
Samples are generally selected based on…
a table of random numbers
a computer random number generator
Random Sampling Techniques

Simple Random Sample – basis for other random sampling

techniques
Each unit is numbered from 1 to n
A random number generator can be used to select
n items from the sample
Random Sampling Techniques

Stratified Random Sample

Proportionate (% of the sample taken from each stratum is
proportionate to the % that each stratum is within the whole
population)
Disproportionate (when the % of the sample taken from each
stratum is not proportionate to the % that each stratum is within
the whole population)
Systematic Random Sample
Cluster (or Area) Sampling
Simple Random Sample:
Sample Members

01 Alaska Airlines 11 DuPont 21 Lucent

02 Alcoa 12 Exxon Mobil 22 Mattel
03 Ashland 13 General Dynamics 23 Mead
04 Bank of America 14 General Electric 24 Microsoft
05 BellSouth 15 General Mills 25 Occidental Petroleum
06 Chevron 16 Halliburton 26 JCPenney
07 Citigroup 17 IBM 27 Procter & Gamble
08 Clorox 18 Kellog 28 Ryder
09 Delta Air Lines 19 KMart 29 Sears
10 Disney 20 Lowe’s 30 Time Warner

N = 30
n = 6
Simple Random Sampling:
Random Number Table

9 9 4 3 7 8 7 9 6 1 4 5 7 3 7 3 7 5 5 2 9 7 9 6 9 3 9 0 9 4 3 4 4 7 5 3 1 6 1 8
5 0 6 5 6 0 0 1 2 7 6 8 3 6 7 6 6 8 8 2 0 8 1 5 6 8 0 0 1 6 7 8 2 2 4 5 8 3 2 6
8 0 8 8 0 6 3 1 7 1 4 2 8 7 7 6 6 8 3 5 6 0 5 1 5 7 0 2 9 6 5 0 0 2 6 4 5 5 8 7
8 6 4 2 0 4 0 8 5 3 5 3 7 9 8 8 9 4 5 4 6 8 1 3 0 9 1 2 5 3 8 8 1 0 4 7 4 3 1 9
6 0 0 9 7 8 6 4 3 6 0 1 8 6 9 4 7 7 5 8 8 9 5 3 5 9 9 4 0 0 4 8 2 6 8 3 0 6 0 6
5 2 5 8 7 7 1 9 6 5 8 5 4 5 3 4 6 8 3 4 0 0 9 9 1 9 9 7 2 9 7 6 9 4 8 1 5 9 4 1
8 9 1 5 5 9 0 5 5 3 9 0 6 8 9 4 8 6 3 7 0 7 9 5 5 4 7 0 6 2 7 1 1 8 2 6 4 4 9 3

N = 30
n=6
Systematic Sampling

Used because of its N ,

convenience and easy
k=
n
of administration
where:
Population elements are
an ordered sequence n = sample size
(at least, conceptually).
With systematic sampling, N = population size

every kth item is selected to

k = size of selection interval
produce a sample of size n from
a population of size N
Systematic Sampling

Thereafter, sample elements are selected at a constant

interval, k, from the ordered sequence frame.
Advantages of systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is evenly distributed across the frame
Evenly determined if a sampling plan has been followed
Systematic sampling is based on the assumption that the
source of the population is random
Stratified Random Sample

Stratified Random sampling – population is divided into non-

overlapping subpopulations called strata
Researcher extracts a simple random sample from each
subpopulation
Stratified random sampling has the potential for reducing error
Stratified Random Sample

Sampling error – a sample does not represent the population

Stratified random sampling has the potential to match the sample
closely to the population
Stratified sampling is more costly
Stratum should be relatively homogeneous, i.e. race, gender, religion
Stratified Random Sample

Proportionate -- the percentage of the sample taken from each

stratum is proportionate to the percentage that each stratum is
within the population
Disproportionate -- proportions of the strata within the sample are
different than the proportions of the strata within the population
Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling – involves dividing the population into non-overlapping areas

Identifies the clusters that tend to be internally homogeneous
Each cluster is a microcosm of the population
If the cluster is too large, a second set of clusters is taken from each original
cluster
This is two stage sampling
Cluster Sampling

Advantages
More convenient for geographically dispersed populations
Reduced travel costs to contact sample elements
Simplified administration of the survey
Unavailability of sampling frame prohibits using other random
sampling methods
Cluster Sampling

Disadvantages
Statistically less efficient when the cluster elements
are similar
Costs and problems of statistical analysis are greater
than for simple random sampling
Errors

Data from nonrandom samples are not appropriate for

analysis by inferential statistical methods.
Sampling Error occurs when the sample is not
representative of the population
Non-sampling Errors – all errors other than sampling errors
Missing Data, Recording, Data Entry, and Analysis Errors
Poorly conceived concepts , unclear definitions, and defective
questionnaires
Response errors occur when people do not know, will not say,
or overstate in their answers
Survey error

Coverage error
Nonresponse error
Sampling error
Measurement error
Probability Sample
Stratified Sample
Divide population into two or more subgroups (strata)
according to some common characteristic
Select a simple random sample from each subgroup,
with sample sizes proportional to strata sizes
Combine samples from each subgroup into one single
sample
Probability Sample
Cluster Sample
Divide population into several “clusters,” each a
miniature version (representative) of the population
Select a simple random sample of clusters
Select items from the cluster
All items in the selected clusters can be used, or
Items can be selected using another probability sampling
technique
Probability Sample
Comparison
 Simple random sample and Systematic sample
 Simple to use
May not be a good representation of the population’s
underlying characteristics

 Stratified sample
Ensures representation of individuals across the entire
population

 Cluster sample
More cost effective
Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the same level of
precision)
Surveys
Evaluating Worthiness
What is the purpose of the survey?
Is the survey based on a probability sample?
Avoid or reduce errors
appropriate frame
follow up non-responders
good questions elicit good responses
sampling errors always exists
Surveys
Error Types
Coverage error (selection bias)
Some groups or individuals are excluded from the frame
Have no chance of being selected
Non-response error
 People who do not respond may be different from those
who do respond
Surveys
Error Types
Sampling error
Normal variation from sample to sample always exists
 Measurement error
Weaknesses in question design