PHY-TE 1: FLUID MECHANICS

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Prepared by:
ANTONIO D. SALVADOR JR.
■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is Fluid mechanics deals
also referred to as fluid dynamics by with liquids and gases in
considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity.
motion or at rest.
2
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids
that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal
with naturally occurring flows.

3
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Deformation of a rubber block
When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops placed between two parallel plates
deforming at some fixed strain under the influence of a shear
angle, whereas a fluid never force. The shear stress shown is
stops deforming and that on the rubber—an equal but
approaches a constant rate of opposite shear stress acts on the
strain. upper plate.
4
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to
re-establish a horizontal free The normal stress and shear stress at
surface. the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress.
5
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of
the container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available
space. 6
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about
each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at
random in the gas phase. 7
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it
is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach:

Does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to
analyze engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach:
Based on the average behavior of
large groups of individual molecules.

On a microscopic scale, pressure

is determined by the interaction of
individual gas molecules.
However, we can measure the
pressure on a macroscopic scale
with a pressure gage. 8
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
Electric Total Artificial Heart. 9
10
11
1–2 ■ A BRIEF HISTORY
OF FLUID MECHANICS

Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay A mine hoist powered by

pipe section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter. a reversible water wheel. 12
Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the
onset of turbulence in pipes, being operated by John Lienhard
at the University of Manchester in 1975.

13
The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.

Old and new wind turbine

technologies north of Woodward,
OK. The modern turbines have 1.6
MW capacities.

14
■ CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
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Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
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Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g.,
liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density
of fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Image of the spherical shock

wave produced by a bursting ballon
Ma = 1 Sonic flow at the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
17
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
over a flat plate. 18
Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
adjacent to her body indicates that humans
and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
by thermal plumes of rising warm air.

19
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change at
a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of
unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil

at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is
a long-exposure (time-averaged) image. 20
Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady
flow, and (b) long exposure picture of the same flow.
21
 Fluids:
Statics vs Dynamics
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure = Force per Unit Area
Atmospheric Pressure is the weight of the
column of air above a unit area. For example,
the atmospheric pressure felt by a man is the
weight of the column of air above his body
divided by the area the air is resting on
P = (Weight of column)/(Area of base)

Standard Atmospheric Pressure:

1 atmosphere (atm)
14.7 lbs/in2 (psi)
760 Torr (mm Hg)
1013.25 millibars = 101.3 kPascals
1kPa = 1Nt/m2
 Fluid Statics
Basic Principles:
 Fluid is at rest : no shear forces
 Pressure is the only force acting

What are the forces acting on the

block?
 Air pressure on the surface - neglect
 Weight of the water above the block
 Pressure only a function of depth
 Units
SI - International System
Length Meter
Time Sec
Mass Kg
Temp 0
K = 0C + 273.15
Force Newton = Nt = 1 kg m / s2
Gravity 9.81 m/s2
Work = Fxd Joule = Nt-m
Power = F/t Watt = Joule/sec
 Units

English Length in Ft
Time in Sec
lbm (slug) - 1 slug = 32.2 lbm
Force - lb
Gravity - 32.2 ft/sec2
Work = slug-ft/s2
 Properties of Fluids
Density =  (decreases with rise in T)
 mass per unit volume ( lbs/ft3 or kg/m3 )
for water density = 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3

Specific Weight = (Heaviness of fluid)

 weight per unit volume  = g
for water spec wt = 62.4 lbs/ft3 or 9.81 kN/m3

Specific Gravity = SG
 Ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of water
SG = f / w SG of Hg = 13.55
Ideal Gas Law relates pressure to Temp for a gas
P = RT
T in 0K units
R = 287 Joule / Kg-0K
Pressure
Force per unit area:
lbs/in2 (psi), N/m2, mm Hg, mbar or atm
1 Nt/m2 = Pascal = Pa
Std Atm P = 14.7 psi = 101.33 kPa = 1013 mb
Viscosity fluid deforms when acted on by shear
stress
 = 1.12 x 10-3 N-s/m2
Surface tension - forces between 2 liquids or gas
and liquid - droplets on a windshield.
 Section 1: Pressure
Pressure at any point in a static fluid not fcn of x,y,or z
Pressure in vertical only depends on of the fluid

P = h + P o
Gage pressure: relative to
atmospheric pressure: P = h
10 ft
Thus for h = 10 ft, P = 10(62.4) =
624 psf
This becomes 624/144 = 4.33 psi
P = 14.7 psi corresponds to 34 ft
Pressure in a Tank Filled with Gasoline and Water
What is the pressure at point A? At point B?

G = 42.43 lbs/ft3 At point A: PA = G x hG + PO

SG = 0.68 = 42.43 x 10 + PO
W = 62.4 lbs/ft3
424.3 lbs/ft2 gage

At point B: PB = PA + W x hW
= 424.3 + 62.4 x 3

611.5 lbs/ft2 gage

Converting PB to psi:
(611.5 lbs / ft2) / (144 in2/ft2)
= 4.25 psi
Measurement of Pressure
Barometer (Hg) - Toricelli 1644
Piezometer Tube
U-Tube Manometer - between two points
Aneroid barometer - based on spring
deformation
Pressure transducer - most advanced
Manometers - measure P
Rules of thumb:
 When evaluating, start from the known
   pressure end and work towards the
   unknown end
 At equal elevations, pressure is
   constant in the SAME fluid
 When moving down a monometer,
   pressure increases
 When moving up a monometer,
   pressure decreases
 Only include atmospheric pressure on
   open ends
Manometers
Simple Example:

P =  x h + PO
Find the pressure at
point A in this open u-
tube monometer with an
atmospheric pressure Po

PD =  W x hE-D + Po
Pc = PD

PB = PC -  Hg x hC-B
PA = PB
 Section 2: Hydrostatics
And the Hoover Dam

For a fluid at rest, pressure increases linearly with depth. As a

consequence, large forces can develop on plane and curved surfaces.
The water behind the Hoover dam, on the Colorado river, is
approximately 715 feet deep and at this depth the pressure is 310 psi.
To withstand the large pressure forces on the face of the dam, its
thickness varies from 45 feet at the top to 660 feet at the base.
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Basic Concepts and Naming

Pressure = h
 = spec gravity of water
h = depth of water
C = Center of Mass of Gate
CP = Center of Pressure on Gate
Fr = Resultant Force acts at CP

γh
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Basic Concepts and Naming
C = Centroid or Center of Mass
CP = Center of Pressure
Fr = Resultant Force
I = Moment of Inertia

For a Rectangular Gate:

Ixc = 1/12 bh3
Ixyc = 0

For a circle:
Ixc =  r4 / 4

γh Ixyc = 0
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
The Center of Pressure YR lies below the centroid - since pressure
increases with depth

FR =  A YC sin
or FR =  A Hc
YR = (Ixc / YcA) + Yc
XR = (Ixyc / YcA) + Xc
but for a rectangle or circle:
XR = Xc
For 90 degree walls:

FR =  A Hc
Hydrostatics Example Problem # 1

What is the Magnitude and Location of the

Resultant force of water on the door?

W = 62.4 lbs/ft3
Water Depth = 6 feet
Door Height = 4 feet
Door Width = 3 feet
 Hydrostatics Example Problem #1
Important variables:
HC and Yc = 4’ Magnitude of Resultant
Force:
Xc = 1.5’
FR = W A HC
A = 4’ x 3’ = 12’
FR = 62.4 x 12 x 4 = 2995.2 lbs
Ixc = (1/12)bh3
= (1/12)x3x43 = 16 ft4
Location of Force:
YR = (Ixc / YcA) + Yc
YR = (16 / 4x12) + 4 = 4.333 ft down
XR = Xc (symmetry) = 1.5 ft from the
corner of the door
 Section 3: Buoyancy
Archimedes Principle: Will it Float?
The upward vertical force felt by a submerged, or partially submerged,
body is known as the buoyancy force. It is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the submerged portion of the body. The buoyancy
force acts through the centroid of the displaced volume, known as the
  center of buoyancy. A body will sink until the buoyancy force is equal to
the weight of the body.

FB =  x Vdisplaced

FB = W x Vdisp
= Vdisp

FB W = FB

FB
Buoyancy Example Problem # 1
A 500 lb buoy, with a 2 ft radius is tethered to the bed of
a lake. What is the tensile force T in the cable?

FB

W = 62.4
lbs/ft3
Buoyancy Example Problem # 1
Displaced Volume of Water: Buoyancy Force:
Vdisp-W = 4/3 x  x R3 FB = W x Vdisp-w
Vdisp-W = 33.51 ft3 FB = 62.4 x 33.51

FB = 2091.024 lbs up

Sum of the Forces:

Fy = 0 = 500 - 2091.024 + T

T = 1591.024 lbs down

 Will It Float?
Ship Specifications:
Weight = 300 million pounds
Dimensions = 100’ wide by 150’ tall by 800’ long
Given Information: W = 62.4 lbs/ft3
 Assume Full Submersion:
FB = Vol x W FB = (100’ x 150’ x 800’) x 62.4 lbs/ft3 FB
= 748,800,000 lbs
Weight of Boat = 300,000,000 lbs
The Force of Buoyancy is greater than the Weight of the Boat
meaning the Boat will float!
How much of the boat will be submerged?
Assume weight = Displaced Volume
W B = FB
300,000,000 = (100’ x H’ x 800’) x 62.4 lbs/ft3
H = Submersion depth = 60.1 feet
The END………………………………