Hydrology

Chapter 1
 
The hydrological cycle and hydrometeorology
 
1.1 The hydrological cycle and water
pathways
1.2 Pathways generating river flow
1.3 Hydrometeorological ‫ا"ألرصاد لا""جوية‬
‫ لا""هيدرولوجية‬control of hydrological pathways
 Chapter 1
1.3.1 The atmosphere

1.3.1.1 Atmospheric pressure and density

1.3.1.2 Chemical composition
1.3.1.3 Water vapour
a) Saturation.
b) Dew point is the temperature, Td
c) Saturation deficit RH =

d) Relative humidity
e) Absolute humidity (ρw)
f) Specific humidity (SH)
 Chapter 1

1.3.2 Solar radiation

1.4 Evaporation
Example
Example
 
An air mass is at a temperature of 28°C with
relative humidity of 70%. Determine
(a) Saturation vapour pressure
(b) Saturation deficit
(c) Actual vapour pressure in mbar and mm Hg
(d) Dew point
(e) Wet bulb temperature
Example
Example
Example
es = 28.32 mm Hg
e = 0.7(28.32) = 19.82 mm Hg = 26.37 mbar (1mm Hg =
1.33 mbar)
Saturation deficit = (es-e) = (28.32-19.82) = 8.5 mm Hg
Td = 8 ᴏC

Try 24.5 ᴏC, then eq. is (26.05-19.82) = 0.485 (28-24.5)

3.23≠1.7
Try 23.0 ᴏC, then eq. is (21.05-19.82) = 0.485 (28-23)
1.23≠2.43
Try 23.7 ᴏC, then eq. is (21.905-19.82) = 0.485 (28-23.7)
2.15≈2.09
Chapter 2
Hydrometric networks
2.1 Gauging networks‫ش بكاتا لقياس‬
2.2 Design considerations
The physical features of the area should be studied. These include the drainage
pattern, the surface relief (altitudinal differences), the geological structure and the
vegetation.
 
The general features of the climate should be noted; seasonal differences in
temperature and precipitation can be identified from good atlases or standard
climatological texts.
 
The characteristics of the precipitation also affect network design and the
principal meteorological causes of the rainfall or snowfall should be investigated.
Chapter 2
2.3 Precipitation networks
3.1 Non-recording (storage) rain gauges
 Chapter 2
2.3 Precipitation networks
3.2 Recording rain gauges

Fig. 3.5 The internal mechanism of a

tipping bucket rain gauge. The design
is described in BS7843. 1996.
Guide to the acquisition and
management of precipitation data.
British Standards Institution.
Chapter 2
3.3 Siting the rain gauge

Fig. 3.6 Minimum shelter allowed at a rain gauge site.

Fig. 3.7 A Hudleston turf wall installation

Chapter 2
3.3 Siting the rain gauge

Fig. 3.8 An Institute of Hydrology Ground-Level Gauge

installation.
Precipitation
Precipitation analysis

9.2 Spatial variation in precipitation

9.2.1 Determination of areal rainfall
9.2.2 The arithmetic mean
Precipitation
9.2.3 The Thiessen polygon

Where:
Ri are the rainfall measurements at n rain gauges
ai The polygon areas, and
A is the total area of the catchment.

Fig. 9.7 Thiessen polygon method of estimating areal rainfall

Precipitation
9.2.4 The isohyetal method

Fig. 9.8 Isohyetal method of estimating areal rainfall

Evaporation
2.4 Evaporation networks

4.1 Factors affecting evaporation

The physical conditions influencing evaporation rates are:
Latent heat is required to change a liquid into its gaseous form and, in nature, this is provided
primarily by energy from the Sun.

The temperature of both the air and the evaporating surface is important and is also dependent on
the major energy source, the Sun.

Directly related to temperature is the water vapour capacity of the air. A measure of the amount of
water vapour in the air is given by the vapour pressure, and a unique relationship exists between
the saturated vapour pressure and the air temperature.

Thus wind speed at the surface is an important factor.

The prevailing weather pattern indicated by the atmospheric pressure affects evaporation.

The nature of the evaporating surface affects evaporation by modifying the wind pattern.
Evaporation
4.2 Measurement of open water evaporation
4.2.1 Water budget of reservoirs
 
The evaporation from a reservoir over a time period is given
by:
Eo = I – O ± S
 
Where:
I = river flow into the reservoir plus precipitation on to the
reservoir surface,
O = outflow from the reservoir (i.e. draw off to supply and
overflow) plus subsurface seepage and
S = change in reservoir storage.
Evaporation
4.2.2 Evaporation tanks and pans

Fig. 4.1 Evaporimeters:

(a) UK standard tank or Symons tank;

(b) US Class A pan

(c) Russian GGI-3000 tank

Evaporation

=
- +

4.2.3 Atmometers
 Evapotranspiration
4.3 Measurement of evapotranspiration
4.3.1 Water budget method
4.3.2 Percolation gauges
Penman-Monteith equation
 River flow
7.1.1 Uniform flow
 In practice, uniform flow usually means that the velocity
pattern within a constant cross-section does not change in the
direction of the flow.

Fig. 7.1 Uniform

and non-uniform
flow.
River flow

Fig. 7.2 Velocity distributions

 River flow
7.3 Stage

Fig. 7.5 A staff gauge. Stage

reading at X =0.585 m. (Adapted
from BS 3680-7: 1971, British
Standards
Institution.)
River flow
7.4 Discharge by velocity–area methods
For reconnaissance discharge estimates
 River flow

Fig. 7.12 A Valeport ‘Braystoke’ 001 current meter. (Reproduced with permission
of Valeport Ltd.)
River flow
 7.4.3 Gauging procedure for current metering

 7.4.4 Calculating the discharge from current metering data

River flow
7.5 Discharge by dilution gauging

Fig. 7.19 Dilution gauging: two basic methods

 River flow
Known concentration of tracer added to the
stream at a constant rate q; and c2 is a sustained
final concentration of the chemical in the well-
mixed flow. Thus,
Known volume of the tracer V of concentration
c1 is added in bulk to the stream and, at the
sampling point, the varying concentration, c2,
is measured regularly during the passage of the
tracer cloud. Then:
 River flow
7.6 Structural methods: flumes and weirs
7.6.1 Flumes
River flow

Rectangular sharp crested weir

V-notch weirs, the discharge formula becomes

River flow
Basis of Design Report -Volume II August -2016.pdf
Mass Rainfall curve and Hyetograph
Mass Rainfall curve
Mass Rainfall curve is a plot between the accumulated rainfall at
a station as ordinate and time as abscissa, plotted in
chronological order

  Rainfall intensity
Mass Rainfall curve and Hyetograph
Hyetograph curve
A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the rainfall intensity and time

 Average Rainfall intensity

Recurrence Interval (Tr) (Return
period)

Isthe average time interval that elapses between

events that equal or exceed a particular level. In
other words, it is the average interval in which a
specified event is equaled or exceeded.

For example, if a 30 cm rainfall in 24 hours on

an average is equaled or exceeded once in 20
years, the recurrence interval of 25 cm rainfall is
20 years.
Tr
Procedure
  
The available rainfall data from a record of n year is arranged in
descending order of magnitude

The rank m of each magnitude is determined

The recurrence interval for any rainfall of the rank m is calculated

by:
Probability of occurrence (p)
 
The probability of an event being equaled or exceeded in any one year is the
probability of its occurrence.

 
Frequency (f)
The probability of occurrence of an event expressed as percentage is known as
frequency

 
Probability of non-occurrence (q)

 
Probability of occurrence at least once (j)
Probability of occurrence at least once in N successive years is given by:

 
Probability of non-occurrence at least once (k)
Probability of occurrence at least once in N successive years is given by:
Example
Probability plot-recurrence interval.xlsx
HYETOGRAPH AND HYDROGRAPH
ANALYSIS
CONTENTS:
1. Hyetograph
2. Runoff
3. Classification of runoff
4. Hydrograph
5. Unit Hydrograph Analysis
6. Hydrograph Vocabulary
HYETOGRAPH
A hyetograph is a graphical representation
of the relationship between the rainfall
intensity and time.

RUNOFF
Runoff is that portion of rainfall that is
not evaporated.
HYDROGRAPH
A hydrograph is a graphical plot of
discharge of a natural stream or river
versus time. It shows variations of
discharge with time, at a particular point
of a stream.
HYDROGRAPH VOCABULARY
 12.4 Estimating the time distribution of
runoff
12.4.1 The time–area method
Fig. 12.3 The time–area method: (a) division of
storm rainfalls and catchment area into areas
with equal travel time T to the outlet. (b)
time–area–concentration curve. (c) cumulative
time–area curve.

 Q(t) = i4A1 + i3A2 + i2A3 + i1A4

 

Where:
NT is the number of time steps of length T
equivalent to the time of concentration
Tc and ik is the effective rainfall generated on a
fractional area Ak.
Time of concentration
https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNon
 
WebContent.aspx?content=27002.wba

 

Where
Time of concentration Tc (hr)
L is the length of the catchment along the
longest river channel (m)
S is the overall catchment slope (m m-1)
Unit Hydrograph
Derivation of unit hydrograph from a
simple storm hydrograph
Derivation of unit hydrograph from
simple storms
 Example
Given below the observed discharges at
the 6 hour intervals from an isolated storm
of 3 hr-duration for a stream with
discharge area of 320 km2.
Assume a constant base folw of 17 m3/s.
derive and plot the 3 hr-unit hydrograph.
Also determine the effective rainfall
depth.
Time (hr) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72

Discharge
m3/s 17 120 270 200 150 115 85 70 55 40 30 22 17
 Example
Time (hr) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72

Discharge m3/s 17 120 270 200 150 115 85 70 55 40 30 22 17

Direct runoff
m3/s 0 103 253 183 133 98 68 53 38 23 13 5 0 970

  0.36 𝑡 ∑ 𝑂 0.36 𝑥 6 𝑥 970

𝑑= = =6.55 𝑐𝑚
𝐴 320

Time (hr) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Direct runoff
m3/s 0 103 253 183 133 98 68 53 38 23 13 5 0
Unit
hydrograph 0.0 15.7 38.6 27.9 20.3 15.0 10.4 8.1 5.8 3.5 2.0 0.8 0.0

  0.36 𝑡 ∑ 𝑂 0.36 𝑥 6 𝑥 148.1

𝑑= = = 0.999 𝑐𝑚
𝐴 320
Example
An observed hydrograph with rainfall excess is given as under. The
time interval is 3 hours between readings. Catchment area is 7092 km2.

Table 1: Ordinates of ODH and Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH)

Let us first define number of equations.
There are 3 pulses of rainfall so M = 3. There are 13 pulses of observed direct runoff
so n = 13. The number of unit hydrograph ordinates is therefore, n - m +1 = 13 - 3 + 1
= 11 ordinates.
Applying this piece of information, set-up of matrices for Q, P and U appear as below

Where, [Q] is 13 by 1 matrix with discharge ordinates; [P] is a 13 by 11 matrix

having three rainfall impulse of given duration; and [U] is unknown matrix of 1
by 1 size whose ordinates are to be determined. In matrix form, information of
tabular chart reduces to 
[Q]13*1 = [P]13*11 . [U]11*1 [U] = [P]-1 [Q]
Classification of Runoff
Surface runoff: Water flows over the land and is first to
reach the streams and rivers which ultimately discharge the
water to the sea.

Inter flow or subsurface flow: A portion of rainfall infiltrates

into surface soil and depending upon the geology of basins,
runs as subsurface runoff and reaches the streams and rivers.

Ground water flow or base flow: It is that portion of rainfall

which after infiltration, percolates down and joins the
ground water reservoir which is ultimately connected to the
ocean.
Catchment modelling
12.1 The essentials of a catchment model
 
12.2 A simple catchment model
The simplest methods of predicting runoff aim to predict only the hydrograph peak
discharge. Called ‘rational method’,
 
Q= CIA (12.1)
where
Q is the peak flow in L s−1;

C is the soil type factor, which ranges between 0.1 for a very permeable soil to 0.9 for an
impermeable soil;

I Rain fall intensity which is a function of catchment average slope, maximum drainage
length and average annual rainfall; and

A is the area of the catchment being drained in hectares.

https://www.lmnoeng.com/Hydrology/rational.php
 12.4 Estimating the time distribution of
runoff
12.4.1 The time–area method
Fig. 12.3 The time–area method: (a) division of
storm rainfalls and catchment area into areas
with equal travel time T to the outlet. (b)
time–area–concentration curve. (c) cumulative
time–area curve.

 Q(t) = i4A1 + i3A2 + i2A3 + i1A4

 

Where:
NT is the number of time steps of length T
equivalent to the time of concentration
Tc and ik is the effective rainfall generated on a
fractional area Ak.
Unit hydrographs of various durations
Changing a short duration unit-graph to a
longer duration unit-graph

Changing a short period unit-

graph to a long period one if the
long is an even multiple of the
short)
Unit hydrographs of various durations
Changing a long duration unit-graph to a
shorter duration unit-graph
Time (h) 1 h UH S-curve S-curve S-curve difference ½ h UH

Deriving the ½ h UH Offset ½ h

0 0 0   0 0
0.5   0.25 0 0.25 0.5
1 0.58 0.58 0.25 0.33 0.66
1.5   1.10 0.58 0.52 1.04
2 1.09 1.67 1.10 0.57 1.14
2.5   2.15 1.67 0.48 0.96
3 0.94 2.61 2.15 0.46 0.92
3.5   2.9 2.61 0.29 0.58
4 0.51 3.12 2.9 0.22 0.44
4.5   3.18 3.12 0.06 0.12
5 0.12 3.24 3.18 0.06 0.12
5.5   3.27 3.24 0.03 0.06
6 0.05 3.29 3.27 0.02 0.04
6.5   3.29 3.29 0 0
7 0 3.29 3.29 0 0
Deriving the 2 h UH Offset 2 h
0 0 0   0 0
1 0.58 0.58   0.58 0.29
2 1.09 1.67 0 1.67 0.83
3 0.94 2.61 0.58 2.03 1.02
4 0.51 3.12 1.67 1.45 0.72
5 0.12 3.24 2.61 0.63 0.32
6 0.05 3.29 3.12 0.17 0.08
7 0 3.29 3.24 0.05 0.03
8     3.29 0 0
Flood routing

Modification of a flood wave showing translation and attenuation of the

hydrograph from an upstream to a downstream site.
Simple non-storage routing (-"‫لا""توجيه‬
‫) لا""مسار‬

Peak stage relationship between upstream and downstream sites.

Storage routing
Flood hydrographs for a river
reach.

Choosing a suitable time interval for the routing period, t, the continuity
equation can be represented in a finite difference form as:
Reservoir or level-pool routing

Level-pool routing
It is convenient to rearrange (14.3) to move the unknowns S2 and O2 to one
side of the equation and to adjust the O1 term to produce:

Since S is a function of O, [(S/t) + (O/2)] is also a specific function of O

(for a given t. Replacing [(S/t) + (O/2)] by G, for simplification, (14.5)
can be written:
Outflow from a level pool as a function of (S/t + O/2).
Example
Discharge from a reservoir is over a spillway with
discharge characteristic Q (m3 s−1) = 110 H1.5 m3 s−1,
where H m is the head over the spillway crest. The
reservoir surface area is 7.5 km2 at spillway crest level
and increases linearly by 1.5 km2 per meter rise of
water level above crest level. The design storm inflow,
assumed to start with the reservoir just full, is given by
a triangular hydrograph, base length 36 h and a peak
flow of 360 m3 s−1 occurring 12 h after start of inflow.
Estimate the peak outflow over the spillway and its
time of occurrence relative to the start of the inflow.
 - +
=

- +
=
Routing - Example.xlsx
River routing

Storage for flow routing in a river reach

River routing

Storage in a river reach showing three possible wedge storage profiles

for rising levels, steady flow and falling levels.
The Muskingum method
McCarthy (1938)
 
McCarthy (1938) made the bold assumption that in (14.6), f1(O) and
f2(I−O) could both be simple straight-line functions, i.e.
f1(O) = K.O and f2(I−O) = b(I−O). Thus:

Thus x is a dimensionless weighting factor indicating the relative importance of

I and O in determining the storage in the reach. The value of x has limits of zero
and 0.5, with typical values in the range 0.2 to 0.4. K has the dimension of time.
Substituting for S2 and S1 in the finite difference form of the continuity equation
(14.3):
The Muskingum method

C3
Example 8.2. Routing in a stream channel by the Muskingum method.
Part I

Given the inflow and outflow hydrographs of Fig. 8.9, derive the constants x and K for the reach

O
O
O O O
River routing

FIG. 8.10 Storage loops for the reach of Example 8.2

 
x = 0·25 and K = 1·5 days
The Muskingum method
O1 O2
The Muskingum method
O1 O2

Similarly calculated, C2 = 0·4 and C3 = 0·8, check that -0.2

+ 0.4 + 0.8 = 1.0 from Eq. (8.5)
 
O2 = - 0.2 I2 + 0.4 I1 + 0.8 O1
 
O2 = - 0.2 (50) + 0.4 (31) + 0.8 (31) = 27.2
 
EVAPORATION
INTRODUCTION
A process whereby liquid water is
converted to water vapour and removed
from the vapour surface.
Evaporation consists of 2 components i.e.
The energy component and the
aerodynamic component
The energy component is responsible
conversion of liquid water to water
vapour
INTRODUCTION
The aerodynamic component is
responsible for vapour removal from the
evaporating surface
Energy used for evaporation is the net all
wave radiation and to a lesser extend
ambient temperature
Evaporation take place from water
surfaces, soil surfaces, and plant surfaces.
Factors affecting evaporation
1.Meteorological factors
 Radiation, relative humidity, wind speed,
air temperature
Radiation and temperature provide the
energy required to break water bonds to
form vapour
RH and wind speed constitute the
aerodynamic component (vapour removal
from the surface)
Factors affecting evaporation
Evaporation proceeds when there is a
vapour pressure gradient between the
evaporating surface and the ambient
Wind speed is required for the creation of
the vapour pressure gradient
Low ambient RH increases the vapour
pressure gradient and vice versa
Factors affecting evaporation
The higher the vapour pressure gradient,
the faster evaporation will take place

2. Crop factors
 Crop type, variety, development stage,
resistance to transpiration (stomatal
resistance), crop roughness, ground
cover, root charactreristics
Factors affecting evaporation
These factors are summarised in the crop
coefficient, Kc

3. Management / Environmental factors

 Soil fertility, soil salinity, mulching, hard
soil horizons, pests and diseases, plant
density, water availability
Factors affecting evaporation
 These may limit crop development and
reduce ET.
 Evaporation can be measured in depth or
energy terms per unit time
 The most common unit is mm/day or
MJ/m2/day
Conversion factors for evaporation
Depth Volume per unit Energy per
area unit area
mm/day mm/ha/da l/s/ha MJ/m2/day
y

1mm/day 1 10 0.116 2.45

1m3/ha/day 0.1 1 0.012 0.245
1l/s/ha 8.640 86.40 1 21.17
1MJ/m2/da 0.408 4.082 0.047 1
y
Conversion factors for evaporation
Example
On a summer day , net solar radiation
received at a dam was 18 MJ/m2/day. If 80
% of the energy was used to vapourise the
water, what is the evaporation rate in
mm/day?
Answer
0.8*18*0.408 = 5.88 mm/day
 Terms
Reference evapotranspiration, ETo
Is ET rate from a reference surface, not short of
water
A reference surface is a hypothetical grass
closely representing an extensive surface of 8 –
15 cm tall, green grass cover of uniform height,
actively growing & completely shading the
ground
Solely a function of meteorological factors i.e.
The evaporative demand of the atmosphere
Terms
Crop evapotranspiration under standard
conditions, ETc
is the evaporative demand from crops
grown under optimal soil water, excellent
management and environmental
conditions and achieve full production
under the given climatic conditions
 Terms
Crop evapotranspiration under non
standard conditions, ETc adj
Is ET from crops grown under
management and environmental
conditions that differ from standard
conditions – calculated by a water stress
coefficient, Ks and or by adjusting Kc
Measurement of evaporation
Can be measured from soil, plant, water
surfaces
Measurement can be direct or in direct
Some of these methods are:
evaporation pan, lysimetry, energy
budget, eddy covariance, whole plant
evaporation chambers, evaporimeters /
atmometers, sap flow gauges, thermal
dissipation probe, soil water balance
Estimation of ETo
Usually done using empirical
relationships from long term studies
Most methods are temperature and
radiation based
Correlations were established (and are
still being established) between ETo and
meteorological parameter(s) using long
term data
Estimation of ETo
Empirical relationships employ simpler
models with less input variables and can be
broadly applied
Not limited to data availability
Best suited for humid conditions where the
aerodynamic term is relatively small
Empirical equations are however less likely
accurate in arid and semi arid conditions
(aerodynamic component is significant)
Estimation of ETo
Local calibration is required for
satisfactory results
Examples of evaporation equations are:
◦ Blaney Criddle Jensen - Haise
◦ Hargreaves Priestly & Taylor
◦ Senami – Hargreaves Thornthwaite
◦ Penman
◦ FAO Makkink
Estimation of ETo
Blaney Criddle method

ETo  p (0.46Tmean  8.13)

p is the ratio of actual daily daytime hours to

annual mean daily day time hours
Tmean is the mean air temperature (oC)

http://www.fao.org/3/s2022e/s2022e07.htm
Estimation of ETo
FAO Makkink method


ETo  c (0.408 Rs )


c is the FAO-24 adjustment factor for mean RH and day

time wind speed
Rs is the solar / short wave radiation (MJ/m2/day)
∆ is the slope of the vapour pressure curve
(kPa/oC)
γ is the psychrometric constant (kPa/ oC)
Estimation of ETo
Jensen – Haise method

Rs
ETo  (0.025Ta  0.08)
28.6

Rs is the incoming short wave radiation

(W/m2)
Ta is the average air temperature at 2m (oC)
Estimation of ETo
Senami – Hargreaves method

ETo  0.0023(Tmax  Tmin ) 0.5 (Tmean  17.8) Ra

Tmean is the average daily air temperature

(oC)
Tmax and Tmin are the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures respectively (oC)
Ra is the extraterrestrial radiation (mm/day)
Estimation of ETo
Thornthwaite method

ETo  1.6(10T ) a
I

ETo = montly reference evapotranspiration

(cm)
T is the mean monthly temperature (oC)
I is a heat index for a given area which is
the sum of 12 monthly index values, i
Estimation of ETo
i is derived from mean monthly
temperatures using:

i  (T )1.514
5
a is an empirically derived exponent which
is a function of I
7 5
a  6.75  10 3
 7.71  10 2
 1.79  10  2 I  0.49
Estimation of ETo
The FAO Penman – Monteith method
 Is the standard method for measuring ETo
 Was developed based on correlation
between energy conservation and the
aerodynamics of an area (combination
method)
 The equation is a close, simple
representation of the physical and
physiological factors governing ETo
Estimation of ETo
The method requires all meteorological
data required for evaporation to take place
Missing data for a site must be estimated
before using the method
The method is mainly used for calibration
of other methods
Estimation of ETo
900
0.408 ( Rn  G )   U 2 (e a  e d )
ETo  T  273
   (1  0.34U 2 )

Rn is the net radiation at the surface

(MJ/m2/day), G is the soil heat flux
(MJ/m2/day), T is the average air
temperature (oC), U2 is wind speed
measured at 2m height (m/s), (ea-ed) is the
vapour pressure deficit (Kpa)
Estimation of ETo
∆ is the slope of the vapour pressure
curve (Kpa/oC), γ is the
psychrometric constant (kPa/oC) and
900 is a conversion factor
 Water Balance
• P = ET + R + D + ΔS
– P – precipitation
– ET – evapotranspiration
• Contains interception (I), surface evaporation (E) and plant
transpiration (T)
– R – runoff
– D – recharge to groundwater
– ΔS – change in internal storage (soil water)
• Quantities are functions of each other
– ET, R and D are a function of ΔS, and vice versa
– Plants mediate all of the relationships