Translation

Translation
The process of converting the information in
messenger RNA into a sequence of amino acids that
make a protein is known as translation.
In translation, each set of three nucleotides in an
mRNA molecule code for one amino acid in a
protein. This explains why each set of three
nucleotides in the mRNA is called a codon. Each
codon specifies a particular amino acid. For
example, the first codon which is, cytosine-guanine-
uracil (CGU), instructs the ribosome to put the amino
acid arginine in the protein. The sequence of codons
in the mRNA determines the sequence of amino
acids in the protein.
 INITIATION
 In initiation, the ribosome assembles
around the mRNA to be read and the first
tRNA (carrying the amino acid methionine,
which matches the start codon, AUG). This
setup, called the initiation complex, is
needed in order for translation to get
started.
 ELONGATION
 Elongation is the stage where the amino acid
chain gets longer. In elongation, the mRNA is read
one codon at a time, and the amino acid matching
each codon is added to a growing protein chain.
Each time a new codon is exposed:
A matching tRNA binds to the codon
The existing amino acid chain (polypeptide) is
linked onto the amino acid of the tRNA via a
chemical reaction
The mRNA is shifted one codon over in the
ribosome, exposing a new codon for reading
 ELONGATION
 During elongation, tRNAs move through
the A, P, and E sites of the ribosome,
as shown above. This process repeats
many times as new codons are read
and new amino acids are added to the
chain.
 TERMINATION
Termination is the stage in which the
finished polypeptide chain is
released. It begins when a stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA) enters the
ribosome, triggering a series of events
that separate the chain from its tRNA
and allow it to drift out of the
ribosome.
Mutation: Changes
in Genetic Code
Genetic code, the sequence
of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that determines the amino
acid sequence of proteins.

Mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA.

Mutations may affect only one gene, or they may affect
whole chromosomes.

When the code in a gene is changed , a different

message may result. Any change in the sequence of
nitrogenous bases in the DNA , any mistake in the
transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA o
pairing of the codon and anticodon, may cause changes
in the kind, sequence and number of amino acids of
proteins synthesized by cells.
Changes in the protein structure or level of
expression may lead to changes in cellular
properties and behavior, as a result, the organism
is affected.
Changes in the genes can occur for a variety of
reasons.
Mutation may be induced by the factors called
mutagens.
Mutagens are commonly in the form of toxic
chemicals, and harmful radiation.
Mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis and
meiosis.
Mutations can occur in 2 different types of cells:
Reproductive cells
Body cells
Reproductive Cells
Mutations affect the reproductive cell of an
organism by changing the nucleotides within a
gene in a sperm or an egg cell.
If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene
becomes a part of the genetic makeup of the
offspring.
If mutation is severe the resulting protein may be
non-functional, and the embryo may not develop.
Mutations in sex cells cause birth defects.
 Body Cells
Mutations in body cells affect only the individual
and are not passed on to the offspring.
Many diseases are caused by the effects of
inherited genes.
In most cases, there is only a small difference
between DNA sequence s in the defective genes
and normal one.
This difference id enough to cause serious and
often fata diseases.
These disease-causing genes are the result of a
mutation.
They may be passed from one generation to the
next if present in gametes.
 TRANSLOCATION

Translocation means a change in location.

It usually refers to genetics, when part of a
chromosome is transferred to another
chromosome.
When this type of translocation occurs, it
can cause flaws in chromosomes.
 DELETION
Deletion is a mutation in which a
part of a chromosome or a
sequence of DNA is left out during
DNA replication.
Any number of nucleotides can be
deleted, from a single base to an
entire piece of chromosome.
Deletions can be caused by errors
in chromosomal
crossover during meiosis, which
causes several serious genetic
diseases.
 INVERSION

A condition in which a chromosome segment is

clipped out, turned upside down, and
reinserted back into the chromosome.
A chromosome inversion can be inherited from
one or both parents, or it may be a mutation
that appears in a child whose family has no
history of chromosome inversion.
 INVERSION

An inversion can be 'balanced,' meaning that it

has all the genes that are present in a normal
chromosome; or it can be 'unbalanced,' meaning
that genes have been deleted (lost) or
duplicated.
A balanced inversion causes no problems.
An unbalanced inversion is often associated with
problems such as developmental delay, mental
retardation, and birth defects