Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vibrations
Singiresu S. Rao
SI Edition
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of
Vibration
Course Outline
1. Fundamentals of Vibration
2. Free Vibration of Single DOF Systems
3. Harmonically Excited Vibration
4. Vibration under General Forcing
Conditions
5. Two DOF Systems
6. Multidegree of Freedom Systems
7. Determination of Natural Frequencies
and Mode Shapes
2
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Course Outline
8. Continuous Systems
9. Vibration Control
10. Vibration Measurement and Applications
11. Numerical Integration Methods in Vibration
Analysis
12. Finite Element Method
13. Nonlinear Vibration
14. Random Vibration
3
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Chapter Outline
1.1 Preliminary Remarks
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
1.5 Classification of Vibration
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
1.7 Spring Elements
4
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Chapter Outline
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
1.9 Damping Elements
1.10 Harmonic Motion
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
5
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.1 Preliminary Remarks
• Brief History of vibration
• Examination of vibration’s important role
• Vibration analysis of an engineering system
• Definitions and concepts of vibration
• Concept of harmonic analysis for general
periodic motions
6
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
• Origins of vibration:
582-507 B.C. –
Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher
and mathematician, is the first to
investigate musical sounds on a
scientific basis. He conducted
experiments on a vibrating string by
using a simple apparatus called a
monochord. He further developed
the concept of pitch.
7
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
Around 350 B.C. –
Aristotle wrote treatises on music and sound
In 320 B.C. –
Aristoxenus wrote a three-volume work entitled
Elements of Harmony
In 300 B.C. –
Euclid wrote a treatises Introduction to Harmonics
A.D. 132 –
Zhang Heng invented the world’s
first seismograph to measure
earthquakes 8
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
• Galileo to Rayleigh:
Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)
- founder of modern experimental science
- started experimenting on simple pendulum
- published a book, Discourses Concerning
Two New Sciences, in 1638, describing
resonance, frequency, length, tension and
density of a vibrating stretched string
Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703)
- found relation between pitch and frequency of
vibration of a string
9
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
Joseph Sauveur (1653 – 1716)
- coined the word “acoustics” for the science of
sound
- founded nodes, loops, harmonics and the
fundamental frequency
- calculated the frequency of a stretched string
from the measured sag of its middle point
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
- published his monumental work, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in 1686,
discovering three laws of motion
10
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
Joseph Lagrange (1736 – 1813)
- found the analytical solution of the vibrating
string and the wave equation
Simeon Poisson (1781 – 1840)
- solved the problem of vibration of a
rectangular flexible membrane
R.F.A. Clebsch (1833 – 1872)
- studied the vibration of a circular membrane
Lord Baron Rayleigh
- founded Rayleigh-Ritz method, used to find
frequency of vibration of a conservative
system and multiple natural frequencies
11
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
• Recent contributions:
1902 – Frahm investigated the importance of
torsional vibration study in the design of
propeller shafts of steamships
Aurel Stodola (1859 – 1943)
- contributed to the study of vibration of beams,
plates, and membranes.
- developed a method for analyzing vibrating
beams which is applicable to turbine blades
C.G.P. De Laval (1845 – 1913)
- presented a practical solution to the problem
of vibration of an unbalanced rotating disk
12
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
1892 – Lyapunov laid the foundations of modern
stability theory which is applicable to all
types of dynamical systems
1920 – Duffling and Van der Pol brought the first
definite solutions into the theory of
nonlinear vibrations and drew attention to
its importance in engineering
– Introduction of the correlation function by
Taylor
1950 – advent of high-speed digital computers
– generate approximate solutions
13
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
1950s – developed finite element method enabled
engineers to conduct numerically detailed
vibration analysis of complex mechanical,
vehicular, and structural systems
displaying thousands of degrees of
freedom with the aid of computers
14
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration
• Why study vibration?
Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections
and failure on the machines and structures
To reduce vibration through proper design of
machines and their mountings
To utilize profitably in several consumer and
industrial applications
To improve the efficiency of certain machining,
casting, forging & welding processes
To stimulate earthquakes for geological
research and conduct studies in design of
nuclear reactors
15
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Vibration = any motion that repeats itself after
an interval of time
Vibratory System consists of:
1) spring or elasticity
2) mass or inertia
3) damper
Involves transfer of potential energy to kinetic
energy and vice versa
16
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Degree of Freedom (d.o.f.) =
min. no. of independent coordinates required
to determine completely the positions of all
parts of a system at any instant of time
Examples of single degree-of-freedom
systems:
17
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of single degree-of-freedom
systems:
18
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of Two degree-of-freedom systems:
19
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of Three degree of freedom systems:
20
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Example of Infinite-number-of-degrees-of-
freedom system:
23
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.5 Classification of Vibration
Nonlinear Vibration:
If any of the components behave nonlinearly
Deterministic Vibration:
If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force
or motion) acting on a vibratory system is
known at any given time
Nondeterministic or random Vibration:
When the value of the excitation at a given
time cannot be predicted
24
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.5 Classification of Vibration
Examples of deterministic and random
excitation:
25
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
26
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
Example of the modeling of a forging hammer:
27
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.1
Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle
Figure 1.18(a) shows a motorcycle with a rider.
Develop a sequence of three mathematical
models of the system for investigating vibration in
the vertical direction. Consider the elasticity of the
tires, elasticity and damping of the struts (in the
vertical direction), masses of the wheels, and
elasticity, damping, and mass of the rider.
28
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.1 Solution
We start with the simplest model and refine it
gradually. When the equivalent values of the
mass, stiffness, and damping of the system are
used, we obtain a single-degree of freedom model
of the motorcycle with a rider as indicated in Fig.
1.18(b). In this model, the equivalent stiffness (keq)
includes the stiffness of the tires, struts, and rider.
The equivalent damping constant (ceq) includes
the damping of the struts and the rider. The
equivalent mass includes the mass of the wheels,
vehicle body and the rider.
29
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.1 Solution
30
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.1 Solution
This model can be refined by representing the
masses of wheels, elasticity of tires, and elasticity
and damping of the struts separately, as shown in
Fig. 1.18(c). In this model, the mass of the vehicle
body (mv) and the mass of the rider (mr) are
shown as a single mass, mv + mr. When the
elasticity (as spring constant kr) and damping (as
damping constant cr) of the rider are considered,
the refined model shown in Fig. 1.18(d) can be
obtained.
31
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.1 Solution
32
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.1 Solution
Note that the models shown in Figs. 1.18(b) to (d)
are not unique. For example, by combining the
spring constants of both tires, the masses of both
wheels, and the spring and damping constants of
both struts as single quantities, the model shown
in Fig. 1.18(e) can be obtained instead of Fig.
1.18(c).
33
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.7 Spring Elements
Linear spring is a type of mechanical link that is
generally assumed to have negligible mass and
damping
Spring force is given by:
F kx 1.1
F = spring force,
k = spring stiffness or spring constant, and
x = deformation (displacement of one end
with respect to the other)
34
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.7 Spring Elements
1 d 2F
(x) 2 ... 1.3
2! dx 2
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd. x* 35
1.7 Spring Elements
36
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.7 Spring Elements
Static deflection of a beam at the free end is
given by:
Wl 3
st 1 .6
3EI
W = mg is the weight of the mass m,
E = Young’s Modulus, and
I = moment of inertia of cross-section of beam
Spring Constant is given by:
W 3EI
k 1.7
l st
3
37
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.7 Spring Elements
Combination of Springs:
1) Springs in parallel – if we have n spring
constants k1, k2, …, kn in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant keq is:
keq k1 k2 ... kn 1.11
38
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.7 Spring Elements
Combination of Springs:
2) Springs in series – if we
have n spring constants k1,
k2, …, kn in series, then the
equivalent spring constant
keq is:
1 1 1 1
... 1.17
k k k
eq 1
k 2 n
39
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.3
Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft
Determine the torsional spring constant of the
speed propeller shaft shown in Fig. 1.25.
40
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.3 Solution
We need to consider the segments 12 and 23 of
the shaft as springs in combination. From Fig.
1.25, the torque induced at any cross section of
the shaft (such as AA or BB) can be seen to be
equal to the torque applied at the propeller, T.
Hence, the elasticities (springs) corresponding to
the two segments 12 and 23 are to be considered
as series springs. The spring constants of
segments 12 and 23 of the shaft (kt12 and kt23) are
given by
41
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.3 Solution
k 12
12 12
l 32l 32(2)
t12
12 12
25.5255 10 N - m/rad6
k 23
23 23
l 32l 32(3)
t 23
23 23
8.9012 10 N - m/rad
6
42
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.3 Solution
k k (25.5255 10 )(8.9012 10 ) 6 6
k t12 t 23
k k (25.5255 10 8.9012 10 )
t eq 6 6
t12 t 23
6.5997 10 N - m/rad 6
43
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.5
Equivalent k of a Crane
The boom AB of crane is a uniform steel bar of
length 10 m and x-section area of 2,500 mm2.
A weight W is suspended while the crane is
stationary. Steel cable CDEBF has x-sectional
area of 100 mm2. Neglect effect of cable CDEB,
find equivalent spring constant of system in the
vertical direction.
44
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.5 Solution
A vertical displacement x of pt B will cause the
spring k2 (boom) to deform by x2 = x cos 45º and
the spring k1 (cable) to deform by an amount
x1 = x cos (90º – θ). Length of cable FB, l1 is as
shown.
45
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.5 Solution
The angle θ satisfies the relation:
l12 32 2(l1)(3) cos 102
cos 0.8184, 35.0736
The total potential energy (U):
1 2 1
U k1( x cos 45) k2[ x cos(90 )]2 E.1
2 2
A1E1 (100 10 6 )(207 109 )
k1 1.6822 106 N/m
l1 12.0355
A2 E2 (2500 106 )(207 109 )
k2 5.1750 107 N/m
l2 10
46
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.5 Solution
Potential Energy of the equivalent spring is:
1
U eq keq x 2 E.2
2
By setting U = Ueq, hence:
keq 26.4304 106 N/m
47
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
48
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
Combination of Masses
E.g. Assume that the
mass of the frame is
negligible compared to
the masses of the floors.
The masses of various
floor levels represent the
mass elements, and the
elasticities of the vertical
members denote the
spring elements.
49
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
55
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.6 Solution
Assuming small displacements, the equivalent
mass (meq) can be determined using the
equivalence of the kinetic energies of the two
systems. When the mass m is displaced by a
distance x , the pulley and the rigid link 1 rotate by
an angle x / r . This causes the rigid link 2
p 1 p
c c c 1 1 1
57
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.6 Solution
2 2 2
1 1 x 1 m l 2
x 1 x l
T mx J 2
1 1
m
1
2 2 r 2 3 r 2 r
p 2
p p p
2 2
1m r x l 1 x l
2
c c
1
m 1
(E.2)
2 2 r r 2 r
c
p c p
58
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.6 Solution
J 1ml m l 1 m l l 2 2 2 2
m m m p 1 1 2 1 c 1 1
(E.4)
r 3 r r 2 r r
eq 2 2 2 2 c 2
p p p p p
59
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.7
Cam-Follower Mechanism
A cam-follower mechanism is
used to convert the rotary motion
of a shaft into the oscillating or
reciprocating motion of a valve.
The follower system consists of a
pushrod of mass mp, a rocker arm
of mass mr, and mass moment of
inertia Jr about its C.G., a valve of
mass mv, and a valve spring of
negligible mass.
Find the equivalent mass (meq) of this cam-follower
system by assuming the location of meq as (i) pt A
and (ii) pt C.
60
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.7 Solution
The kinetic energy of the system (T) is:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
T m p x p mv x v J r r mr x r
E.1
2 2 2 2
If meq denotes equivalent mass placed at pt A,
with x eq x , the kinetic energy equivalent mass
system Teq is:
1
Teq 2
meq x eq E.2
2
61
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.7 Solution
63
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.9 Damping Elements
Viscous Damping:
Damping force is proportional to the velocity of
the vibrating body in a fluid medium such as air,
water, gas, and oil.
Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping:
Damping force is constant in magnitude but
opposite in direction to that of the motion of the
vibrating body between dry surfaces
Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping:
Energy is absorbed or dissipated by material
during deformation due to friction between
internal planes
64
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.9 Damping Elements
65
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.9 Damping Elements
and A
c 1.28
h
is called the damping constant.
If a damper is nonlinear, a linearization process
is used about the operating velocity (v*) and the
equivalent damping constant is:
dF
c 1.29
dv v*
67
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.9
Piston-Cylinder Dashpot
Develop an expression for the damping constant
of the dashpot as shown in Fig. 1.36(a).
68
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.9 Solution
F Dldy (E.3)
dy 2
4
Thus the pressure force on the end of the element
is 4P
p Ddy dy (E.5)
D
71
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.9 Solution
where Ddy denotes the annular area between y
and (y + dy). If we assume uniform mean velocity
in the direction of motion of the fluid, the forces
given in Eqs. (E.3) and (E.5) must be equal. Thus
we get 4P dv 2
dy Dldy
D dy 2
or
dv 2
4P
(E.6)
dy D l
2 2
72
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.9 Solution
Integrating this equation twice and using the
boundary conditions v v at y = 0 and v = 0 at
0
y = d, we obtain
2P y
yd y v 1
v 2
(E.7)
D l d
2 0
Q vDdy D
d
v d (E.8)
6D l 2
2 0
0
73
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.9 Solution
The volume of the liquid flowing through the
clearance space per second must be equal to the
volume per second displaced by the piston. Hence
the velocity of the piston will be equal to this rate of
flow divided by the piston area. This gives
Q
v (E.9)
0
D
2
4
Equations (E.8) and (E.9) lead to
74
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.9 Solution
2d
3D l 1 D
3
P v (E.10)
4d 3 0
By writing the force as P = cv0, the damping
constant c can be found as
3D l 2d
3
c 1 (E.11)
4d D
3
75
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Equivalent Spring and Damping
Constants of a Machine Tool Support
76
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Equivalent Spring and Damping
Constants of a Machine Tool Support
77
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Solution
The free-body diagrams of the four springs and
four dampers are shown in Fig. 1.37(c). Assuming
that the center of mass, G, is located
symmetrically with respect to the four springs and
dampers, we notice that all the springs will be
subjected to the same displacement, x , and all the
dampers will be subject to the same relative
velocity x , where x and x denote the
displacement and velocity, respectively, of the
center of mass, G. Hence the forces acting on the
springs (Fsi) and the dampers (Fdi) can be
expressed as
78
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Solution
79
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Solution
F k x;
si i
i 1,2,3,4
F c x ;
di i
i 1,2,3,4 (E.1)
Let the total forces acting on all the springs and all
the dampers be Fs and Fd, respectively (see Fig.
1.37d). The force equilibrium equations can thus
be expressed as
F F F F F
s s1 s2 s3 s4
F F F F F
d d1 d2 d3 d4
(E.2)
80
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Solution
where Fs + Fd = W, with W denoting the total
vertical force (including the inertia force) acting on
the milling machine. From Fig. 1.37(d), we have
F k x
s eq
F c x
d eq
(E.3)
Equation (E.2) along with Eqs. (E.1) and (E.3),
yield
k k k k k 4k
eq 1 2 3 4
c c c c c 4c
eq 1 2 3 4
(E.4)
81
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.10 Solution
82
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
• Scotch yoke
mechanism:
The similarity
between cyclic
(harmonic) and
sinusoidal
motion.
84
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
85
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
Thus,
A j (a 2j b 2j ); j 1, 2 1.47
1 b j
j tan ; j 1, 2 1.48
aj
86
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
• Vectorial addition of
harmonic functions
88
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.11
Addition of Harmonic Motions
Find the sum of the two harmonic motions
x (t ) 10 cos t and x (t ) 15 cos(t 2).
1 2
Solution:
Method 1: By using trigonometric relations: Since
the circular frequency is the same for both x1(t)
and x2(t), we express the sum as
x(t ) A cos(t ) x (t ) x (t )
1 2
(E.1)
89
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.11 Solution
That is,
A cos t cos sin t sin 10 cos t 15 cos(t 2)
10 cos t 15(cos t cos 2 sin t sin 2) (E.2)
That is,
cos t ( A cos ) sin t ( A sin ) cos t (10 15 cos 2)
sin t (15 sin 2) (E.3)
14.1477 (E.4)
90
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.11 Solution
and
15 sin 2
tan 1
10 15 cos 2
74.5963 (E.5)
x (t ) Re A e
2 2
Re15e
i ( t 2 ) i ( t 2 )
(E.7)
Definitions of Terminology:
Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement
of a vibrating body from its equilibrium
position
Period of oscillation (T) is time taken to
complete one cycle of motion
2
T 1.59
Frequency of oscillation (f) is the no. of
1
cycles per unit time f 1.60
T 2 93
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
Definitions of Terminology:
Natural frequency is the frequency which a
system oscillates without external forces
Phase angle () is the angular difference
between two synchronous harmonic motions
x1 A1 sin t 1.61
x2 A2 sin t 1.62
94
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
Definitions of Terminology:
Beats are formed when two harmonic
motions, with frequencies close to one
another, are added
95
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.10 Harmonic Motion
Definitions of Terminology:
Decibel is originally defined as a ratio of
electric powers. It is now often used as a
notation of various quantities such as
displacement, velocity, acceleration,
pressure, and power
P
dB 10 log (1.68)
P
0
X
dB 20 log (1.69)
X 0
2
1 2
a
(a cos nt b sin nt )
0
(1.70)
2 n 1 n n
97
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
•Gibbs Phenomenon:
An anomalous behavior observed from a
periodic function that is being represented by
Fourier series.
As n increases, the
approximation can be seen
to improve everywhere
except in the vicinity of the
discontinuity, P. The error
in amplitude remains at
approximately 9 percent,
even when k .
98
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
•Complex Fourier Series:
The Fourier series can also be represented in
terms of complex numbers.
e cos t i sin t
it
(1.78)
and
e cos t i sin t
it
(1.79)
Also, e e
it it
cos t (1.80)
2
e e
it it
sin t (1.81)
2i
99
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
•Frequency Spectrum:
Harmonics plotted as vertical lines on a diagram
of amplitude (an and bn or dn and Φn) versus
frequency (nω)
100
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
• A periodic function:
101
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
• Even and odd functions:
Even function & its Fourier
series expansion
x(t ) x(t ) (1.87)
a
x(t ) a cos nt (1.88)
0
2
n
n 1
n 1
n
(1.90)
102
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
• Half-Range Expansions:
The function is extended to include
the interval to 0 as shown in the
figure. The Fourier series
expansions of x1(t) and x2(t) are
known as half-range expansions.
103
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
1.11 Harmonic Analysis
• Numerical Computation
of Coefficients
If x(t) is not in a simple
form, experimental
determination of the
amplitude of vibration
and numerical 2
integration procedure a N x
N
0 i 1 i
(1.97)
like the trapezoidal or 2 2nt
Simpson’s rule is used a N x cos
N
n i 1 i
i
(1.98)
to determine the 2 2nt
coefficients an and bn. b N x sin
N
n
i 1
i
i
(1.99)
104
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.12
Fourier Series Expansion
Determine the Fourier series expansion of the
motion of the valve in the cam-follower system
shown in the Figure.
105
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.12 Solution
If y(t) denotes the vertical motion of the pushrod,
the motion of the valve, x(t), can be determined
from the relation:
y (t ) x(t )
tan
l l
or
1 2
l
x(t ) y (t ) 2
(E.1)
l 1
where t
y (t ) Y ; 0 t (E.2)
2
and the period is given by .
106
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.12 Solution
By defining Yl
A 2
l 1
a x(t )dt A dt
2 /
A
2 /
(E.4)
2
0 0 0
107
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.12 Solution
t
a x(t ) cos nt dt A cos nt dt
2 / 2 /
n 0 0
t cos nt dt
2 /
0
2 n 2
n 2
0
0, n 1, 2, .. (E.5)
t
b x(t ) sin nt dt A sin nt dt
2 / 2 /
n 0 0
t sin nt dt
2 /
0
2 n 2
n 2
0
A
, n 1, 2, .. (E.6)
n
108
© 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
Example 1.12 Solution
Therefore the Fourier series expansion of x(t) is
A A A
x(t ) sin 2t sin 2t ...
2 2
A 1 1
sin t sin 2t sin 3t ... (E.7)
2 2 3