LOADS

LOADS
Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to structure components.
Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures. Assessment of their effects is
carried out by the methods of structural analysis.. Loading conditions on the same structure may change
from time to time, or may change rapidly with time.
Types
. of Loads: Various loads are taken into account while designing the foundation of a structure.
• Dead loads;
• Live load;
• Wind loads;
• Earthquake loads;
• Erection loads; and
• Snow load
Dead Load:
Dead load comprises of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs including all other
permanent construction in the building.
Live Load:
Live Loads consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their furniture,
temporary stores, machineries.
Wind load:
It is considered as basic wind pressure which is equivalent static pressure in the direction of the wind
Wind pressure = kV2 Where k=co-efficient,0.006 V=wind velocity
Wind pressure always acts in the vertically exposed surface of the walls and columns.
Earthquake load:
An earthquake load produced waves in every possible direction below ground.
 As per intensity or scale of earthquake, jerks and shocks are acting on the earth.
As per the location of the building in the prescribed zone of earthquake coefficients of earthquake
loads are decided
Erection Load:
All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage or positioning of
construction material and erection equipment including all loads due to operation of such equipment,
shall be considered as erection loads.
Snow Load:
Snow Loads is the downward force on building roof by the weight of accumulated snow and ice. The
roof or entire structure can fail if the snow load exceeds the weight of building was designed to
withstand.
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL Methods to determine the bearing capacity of
 Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to soil
support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil can be determined
by the following method:
 The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum
 Analytical method
average contact pressure between the  Plate load test on the soil
foundation and the soil which should not  Penetration test
produce shear failure in the soil.   Presumptive bearing capacity values from
 Bearing capacity is the power of foundation codes.
soil to hold the forces from the superstructure
without undergoing shear failure or excessive
settlement.
 Foundation soil is that portion of ground which
is subjected to additional stresses when
foundation and superstructure are constructed
on the ground.
The following are a few important terminologies related
to bearing capacity of soil.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf):
It is defined as the minimum gross pressure intensity
at the base of foundation at which the soil fail in
shear.
Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn):
It is the minimum net pressure intensity causing shear
failure of the soil.
Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa):
It is the maximum pressure on the foundation soil
which is subjected to considering both shear failure
and settlement. It is pressure intensity at which
neither the soil fails in shear nor excessive settlement. Resistance of soil per unit area (in kg/cm2)
Safe Bearing Capacity (qs):
The maximum pressure which the soil can carry
safely without rick of shear failure is called the safe
bearing capacity.
Calculation of safe bearing capacity of soil:
 Calculate the ultimate resistance of
soil(R) using the formula given below.
R = (w * h) / d Where,
R = Ultimate resistance of soil (in kg)
d = Average depth of impression (in cm)
w = Weight of the solid square cube (in kg)
h = Height of fall of solid cube (in cm)
 If “A” is the cross-sectional area of the
solid cube, then resistance of soil per
unit area is calculated using following
formula.
=R/A
Safe bearing capacity (in kg/cm2)
= R / (A * F.O.S)
Where, F.O.S = Factor of safety
Safe bearing capacity value based on IS code

Type of Soil / Rock Safe Bearing Capacity (kg/cm2)

Rock 32.40

Soft rock 4.40

Coarse sand 4.40

Medium sand 2.45

Fine sand 4.40

Soft shell / Stiff clay 1.00

Soft clay 1.00

Very soft clay 0.50

Method of improving bearing capacity of soil
The following techniques can be used for
improving bearing capacity of soil as per the site
condition.
 Increasing depth of foundation
 Draining the soil
 Compacting the soil
 Confining the soil
 Replacing the poor soil
 Using grouting material
 Stabilizing the soil with chemicals
1. INCREASING DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
At deeper depths, the over burden pressure on soil is higher; hence the soil is more compacted at
deeper depth. As a result it shows higher bearing capacity.
This is applicable only for sandy and gravel soils.
 This method of improving bearing capacity of soil but it is not applicable if the subsoil material
grows wetter as depth increase.
This method has a limited use because with increase in depth the cost of foundation also increases.

2. DRAINING THE SOIL

With increase in percentage of water content in soil, the bearing capacity decreases. In case of sandy
soil, the bearing capacity may reduce as much as 50% due to presence of water content.
Cohesion less soils (i.e. sandy & gravelly soils) can be drained by laying the porous pipes to a gentle
slope, over a bed of sand and filling the trenches above the pipes with loose boulders.

3. COMPACTING THE SOIL

If we compact soil then there will be increase in its density and shear strength. As a result the
bearing capacity of soil also increases.
There are many methods of compacting soils on site.
Using an appropriate roller as per the soil type to move at a specified speed.
4. CONFINING THE SOIL
In this method, the soils are enclosed with the help of sheet piles.
This confined soil is further compacted to get more strength.
This method is applicable for shallow foundations.
5. REPLACING THE POOR SOIL
In this method the poor soil is first removed and then the gap is filled up by superior material such as
sand, stone, gravel or any other hard material.
 In order to do this, first excavate a foundation trench of about 1.5 m deep, and then fill the hard
material is stages of 30 cm.
Then compact the hard material at every stage. This method is useful for foundations in black cotton
soils.
6. USING GROUTING MATERIAL
This method is applicable for soils where there is presence of pores, fissures or cracks etc underneath
the foundation.
 In this method, poor soil bearing strata is hardened by injecting the cement grout under pressure.
 For proper distribution of the cement grout, the ground is bored and perforated pipes are introduced to
force the grout.
7. STABILIZING THE SOIL WITH CHEMICALS
This method of improving bearing capacity of soil is costly and applied in exceptional cases.
In this method, chemical solutions, like silicates of soda and calcium chloride is injected with
pressure into the soil.
These chemical along with the soil particles form a gel like structure and develop a compact mass.
This is called chemical stabilization of soil and used to give additional strength to soft soils at
deeper depths.

EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATION

Excavation of foundation trenches can be done either manually with help of conventional implement
or with the help of special mechanical equipment. Conventional implement as shown in fig. which are
spade, phawrah, pick axe, crow bar, rammer, wedge, boning rod, sledge hammer, basket, iron pan, line
and pin.
Special mechanical equipment include drag shovel which can excavate the foundation trench up to a
width of 1.7m.
 Also multi-bucket trencher which can excavate trenches up to 1.5 m width and 5m deep.
The boom is raised or lowered as required by driver moving a lever and can be locked in any
position.
 The soil is carried up from trench by bucket which is having cutting teeth
Dewatering from foundation
Construction of some buildings,
powerhouses, dams, and many other
structures requires excavation below
the water table into water-bearing
soils.
Such excavations require lowering
the water table below bottom of the
excavation to prevent sloughing and
to ensure dry, firm working conditions
for construction operations.
Dewatering can be done the
following methods:
1. Ditches and sumps
2. Well point systems
3. Shallow well system
4. Deep well system
5. Vacuum method
6. Electro-osmosis
1. Ditches and sumps
 This is the simplest form of dewatering used in
shallow excavation in course grained soil.
 Shallow pits called sumps are dug along the periphery
of area.
 The water from slopes or sides flows under gravity
and is collected in sumps from which it is pumped out.

2. Well point systems

 Well point is 5.0-7.5 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe
60 cm – 120 cm long which is perforated and covered
with a screen.
 Well points are connected to 5.0-7.5 cm diameter pipes
known as riser pipes and are inserted into the ground
by driving or jetting.
 The upper ends of the riser pipes connect to a header
pipe which connected to a pump.
 The ground water is drawn by the pump into the well
points through the header pipe and discharged.
3. Shallow wells system
 Shallow wells include surface pumps which draw water through suction pipes installed in bored
wells drilled by the most appropriate well drilling.
The limiting depth to which this method is employed is about 8 m.
The shallow well can be used to extract large quantities of water from a single hole.
 On congested sites use of smaller number dewatering points is preferred as shallow wells system.
 The initial cost of installation is more compared to well points.

4. Deep Wells system

 When water has to be extracted from depths greater than 8 m and it is not feasible to lower the
pump and suction pipe.
The diameter of pipe will be 150 – 200 mm which is larger than the well inner casing.
 The inner well casing has a perforated screen over the depth requiring dewatering and terminates
below in 1 m of unperforated pipe.
 After the slotted PVC or metal well screen (casing) has been installed it is surrounded by backfill
over the unperforated pipe length and with graded filter material over the perforated length.
In deep well system submersible pump should be used for dewatering.
5. Vacuum method
The above method are effective only in course grained soils.
For fine grain soil well point system and deep well system can be adopted for dewatering.
 In vacuum method a hole of about 25 cm diameter is created around the well point and the rise
pipe by jetting water under sufficient pressure.
 While the jetting water is still flowing, medium to course sand is rapidly shoveled in to the hole to
fill it up to about 0.75m to 1m from the top.
The top portion of the hole is then sealed up by tamping cement or clay.
Vacuum pumps are used to create vacuum in sand filling.

6. Electro-osmosis method
 This method is used for fine grained cohesive soils such as clay, which can be drained water by
using electric current.
 If direct current is passed between two electrodes driven in to natural soil mass, the soil water will
travel from the positive electrode(cathode) to the negative electrode(anode).
The still pipe or steel piling of excavation can serve as anode and water is pump out.
THE CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FOUNDATIONS

The causes of failure of foundations may be summarized under the following heads :
1. Unequal settlement of the sub-soil.
2. Unequal settlement of masonry.
3. Sub-soil moisture movement.
4. Lateral pressure on the walls.
5. Lateral Movement of sub-soil.
6. Action of atmosphere.
1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil.
• Unequal settlement of the sub-soil may lead to
cracks in the structural components.
• Unequal settlement of sub-soil may be due to
(i) Non-uniform nature of sub-soil throughout the
foundation
(ii) Unequal load distribution of the soil strata, and
(iii) Eccentric loading.
The failures of foundation due to unequal settlement
can be restricted by :
(i) Resting the foundation on rigid strata, such as rock
or hard moorum,
(ii) Proper design of the base of footing, so that it can
resist cracking,
(iii) Limiting the pressure in the soil, and
(iv)Avoiding eccentric loading
2. Unequal settlement of masonry.
• Foundation includes the portion of the
structure which is below ground level.
• This portion of masonry, situated between
the ground level and concrete footing(base)
has mortar joints which may either shrink or
compress, leading to unequal settlement of
masonry. Due to this, the superstructure will
also have cracks.
• This could be restricted by
(i) using mortar of proper strength,
(ii) using thin mortar joints,
(iii) restricting the height of masonry to 1 m
per day if lime mortar is used and 1.5 m per
day if cement mortar is used, and
(iv) properly watering the masonry.
3. Sub-soil moisture movement.
• This is one of the major causes of failures of
footings on cohesive soil, where the sub-soil water
level fluctuates.
• When water table drops down, shrinkage of sub-
soil takes place.
• Due to this, there is lack of sub-soil support to the
footings which crack, resulting in the cracks in the
building.
• During upward movement of moisture, the soil
(specially if it is expansive) swells resulting in
high swelling pressure.
• If the foundation and superstructure is unable to
resist the swelling pressure, cracks are induced.
4. Lateral pressure on the walls.
• The walls transmitting the load to the
foundation may be subjected to lateral
pressure from a pitched roof or an
arch or wind action.
• Due to this, the foundation will be
subjected to a moment (or resultant
eccentric load).
• If the foundation has not been
designed for such a situation, it may
fail by either overturning or by
generation of tensile stresses on one
side and high compressive stresses on
the other side of the footing.
5. Lateral Movement of sub-soil 
•  This is applicable to very soft soil which are liable to move
out laterally under vertical loads, specially at locations where
the ground is sloping.
• Such a situation may also arise in granular soils where a big
pit is excavated for foundation.
• Due to such movement, excessive settlements take place, or
the structure may even collapse.
• If such a situation avoided, sheet piles should be driven to
prevent the lateral movement or escape of the soil. 
6.Atmospheric action. 
• The behavior of foundation may be adversely affected due to
atmospheric agents such as sun, wind, and rains.
• If the depth of foundation is shallow, moisture movements
due to rains or drought may cause trouble.
• If  the building lies in a low lying area, foundation may even
be scoured.
LOW LYING AREA
Foundations on Black Cotton Soil
• Black cotton soils and other expansive soils have typical characteristics of shrinkage and swelling
due to moisture movement through them.
• When moisture enter between the soil particles under some hydrostatic pressure, the particles
separate out, resulting in increase in the volume.
• This increase in volume is commonly known as swelling. If this swelling is checked or restricted
high swelling pressure, acting in the upward direction, will be induced.
• This would result in several cracks in the walls and may some times damage the structural such as
lintels, beams, slabs etc.
• During summer season, moisture moves out of the soil and consequently, the soil shrinks.
• Shrinkage cracks are formed on the ground surface. These shrinkage cracks some times also
known as tension cracks, may be 10 to 15 cm wide on the ground surface.
• Black cotton soils and other expansive soils are dangerous due to their shrinkage and swelling
characteristics.
• In addition, these soils have very poor bearing capacity, ranging from 5 t/m2 to 10 t/m2.
For designing footings on these soils, the following points should be kept in mind:
The safe bearing capacity should be properly determined, taking into account the effect
of sustained loading. The bearing capacity of these soils may be limited to 5 to 10 t/m2.
The foundation should be taken at least 50 cm lower than the depth of moisture
movement.
Where this soil occurs only in top layer, and where the thickness of this layer does not
exceed 1 to 1.5 m, the entire layer of black cotton soil should be removed, and the
foundation should be laid on non-shrinkable non- expansive soil.
Where the soil is highly expansive, it is very essential to have minimum contact
between the soil and the footing. This can be best achieved by transmitting the loads
through deep piles.
Where the bearing capacity of soil is poor, or soil is very soft, the bed of the foundation
trench should be made firm or hard by ramming mooram.
 Types of foundation in black cotton soils. Foundation in black cotton soils may be of the following
types: 1. Strip foundation.  For medium loads, strip foundation may be provided, along with
special design features.
2. Pier foundation  Piers are dug at regular interval and filled with cement concrete. The piers may
rest on good bearing strata.
3. Under-reamed pile foundation.
 An under-reamed pile is a pile of shallow depth (1 to 6 m) having one bulb at its lower end.
 Under-reamed piles are bored cast-in-situ concrete piles having bulk shaped enlargement near
base.
 These piles are commonly recommended for providing safe and economical foundations in
expansive soils such as black cotton soil having poor bearing capacity.
 In these type of foundation the structure is anchored to the ground at a depth where ground
movement due to changes in moisture content negligible.
 A pile having one bulk is known as single under-reamed pile. It is seen that the load bearing
capacity of the pile can be increased by increasing the number of bulk at the base.
 In such a case the pile is named as multi-under-reamed pile. The increase in the bearing capacity
of the pile can also be achieved by increasing the diameter and the length of the pile.
 The method of construction of under-reamed pile
is very simple. The holes for casting piles in the
ground may be bored by using hand augers.
After boring is carried out at the required depth,
the base of the bore hole is enlarged in the form of a
bulb near its base by use of a tool, known under-
reamer.
After the pile holes are ready for concreting,
reinforcement cage are lowered in the holes and
concrete is poured.
The piles should be cast at least 200 to 400 mm
above the cut-off level. Later on, when the concrete
is hardened, the extra length of each pile is broken
and the pile top is brought to the desired level.
Thus, besides relative saving in direct cost (when
compared with conventional isolated footings) it is
possible to have overall saving in time of
completion of a work by adopting under-reamed
piles.
THANK YOU