BRICKS 2.

SECOND CLASS BRICKS:

A brick is small block of burnt clay with a size that
can be held in one hand conveniently. Brick should
be thoroughly burnt, of uniform colour, having
plane rectangular faces, sharp straight, right angle
edges. Bricks are one of the most useful building
materials used in construction works. It is important
to know the types of bricks for understanding the
masonry work properly. The types of bricks depend
on their quality, strength, making process,
motivation behind their utilizing etc.
The quality of second class bricks is slightly lower
than first class bricks. These bricks are ground-
moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of
these bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also
slightly irregular. These bricks may have hair cracks
and their edges may not be sharp and uniform.
These bricks are commonly used at places where
brickwork is to be provided with a coat of plaster
The basic properties of this type of bricks are given
below.

Bricks are mainly classified into two general

categories.

UNBURNT BRICKS:

Unburnt bricks are also known as sun-dried bricks

because they are dried by the heat coming from the First Class
Properties
sun. Nowadays these bricks are not used in Bricks
construction due to their lower strength but if
required they can be used for constructing 1. Type 1. Class 1
temporary structures.
2. Feature 2. Table moulded.
BURNT BRICKS:

This types of bricks are made by burning in the 3. Shape & 3. Standard and uniform
kilns. Depending upon the quality burnt bricks can Size (rectangular).
further be classified into 3 categories which are as
following: 4. Surface 4. Sharp, smooth, square
& Edges and straight.
1. FIRST CLASS BRICKS:
5. Uniform red or
As the name suggest, first class bricks are best 5. Colour
brown.
bricks compared to others. Due to their high quality
and greater strength, these bricks are table-moulded
and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns. 6.
6. 15% of its self-weight
The surfaces and edges of the bricks are sharp, Maximum
when submerged in
square, smooth and straight. They comply with all Water
water for 24 hours.
the qualities of good bricks. These bricks are used Absorbing
for superior work of permanent nature commonly
used in construction work. 7. Crushing
7. 105 kg/cm2
Strength
The basic properties of first class bricks are given
below. 8. Making
8. Burnt in kilns.
Process

9.  Permanent and
9. Use
superior work.
  Second
                                 Properties Bricks Properties
Class Bricks

1. Type 1. Class 3
1. Type 1. Class 2

2. Feature 2. Ground moulded.

2. Feature 2. Table moulded.

3. Shape &
3. Shape & 3. Non-uniform
3. Irregular Size
Size

4. Surface & 4. Irregular and distorted

4. Surface & 4. Rough, uneven faces, may
Edges edges.
Edges consist of hairline cracks.

5. Colour 5. Non-uniform and dark.

5. Colour 5. Uniform colour.

6. Maximum 6. 25% of its self-weight when

6. Maximum 6. 22% of its self-weight when
Water submerged in water for 24
Water submerged in water for 24
Absorbing hours.
Absorbing hours.

7. Crushing
7. Crushing 7. 30 kg/cm2
7. 70 kg/cm2 Strength
Strength

8. Making 8. Burnt in kilns and may be

8. Burnt in kilns and
8. Making Process over burnt or under burnt
sometimes may be slightly
Process
over burnt.
9.  Used in temporary
9. Use
structures.
9.  Used in internal walls.
9. Use
(Plaster or coating is required.

4. FOURTH CLASS BRICK:

3. THIRD CLASS BRICKS: These are over-burnt type of brick with irregular
shape and dark colour. These bricks are used as
The quality and strength of third class bricks are too
aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads,
much low. These bricks are ground-moulded and
etc. because of the fact that the over-burnt bricks
they are moulded in kilns. These bricks are not hard
have a compact structure and hence they are
and they have rough surfaces with irregular and
sometimes found to be stronger than even the first
distorted edges. These bricks give dull sound when
class bricks.
struck together. They are used for unimportant and
temporary structures. And at places where rainfall is
not heavy as they do not fulfil all the properties of
good bricks. The basic properties of these bricks Modular Bricks
are given below. Standard Modular size of common building brick is
190x90x90 mm. Modular brick are sized such that
                                             
the specified dimension plus the intended mortar
Third Class
joint thickness. Nominal size or modular
size of modular brick is 20cm×10cm×10cm
Modular bricks are bricks that are used around
doors and windows. They make it easier to install
modular doors and windows because they create a 4
inch by 4-inch grid.
The size of a Non-Modular brick is 9"x4-3/8"x2-
11/16" (229x111x70 mm). But it is specified as
230x110x70 mm.
Qualities of good bricks
The good bricks which are to be used for the
construction of important structures should posses
the following qualities:
1. The bricks should be table-mounted, well
burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free from
cracks and with sharp & square edges. The
colour should be uniform and bright.
2. The bricks should be uniform in shape and
should be of standard size.
3. The bricks should give a clear metallic
ringing sound when struck with each other.
4. The bricks when broken or fractured should
show a bright homogeneous and uniform
compact structure free from voids.
5. The bricks shouldn’t absorb water more than
20 percent by weight for first class bricks
and 22 percent by weight for second class
bricks, when soaked in cold water for a
period of 24 hours.
6. The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No
impression should be left on brick surface,
when it is scratched with finger nail.
7. The bricks should not break into pieces
when dropped flat on hard ground from a
height of about one meter.
8. The bricks should have low thermal
conductivity and they should be sound-
proof.
9. The bricks, when soaked in water for 24
hours, should not show deposits of white
salts when allowed to dry in shade.
10. No brick should have the crushing strength
below 5.5 N/mm2.
Water Absorption of Brick
Average water absorption of bricks after 24 hours of
immersion in cold water should not be more than
20% of its own dry weight.
Composition of Brick
Normally, bricks contain the following ingredients:
Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight. Alumina
(clay) – 20% to 30% by weight. Lime – 2 to 5% by
weight.
Following are the constituents of good brick
material:
 Alumina: It is the chief constituent of every
kind of clay. A good brick should contain
20% to 30% of alumina. This constituent
imparts plasticity to the clay so that it can be
moulded. If alumina is present in excess,
with inadequate quantity of sand, the raw
bricks shrink and warp during drying
/burning and become too hard when burnt.
 Silica: It exists in clay either as free or
combined. As free sand, it is mechanically
mixed with clay. In combine form, it exists
in chemical composition with alumina. A
good brick material should contain about
50% to 60% of silica. The presence of this
constituent prevents cracking, shrinking and
warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts
uniform shape to the bricks. The durability
of bricks depends on the proper proportion
of silica in brick material. The excess of
 silica destroys the cohesion between
particles and the bricks become brittle.
 Lime: A small quantity of lime not
exceeding 5 percent is desirable in good
brick material. It should be present in a very
finely powdered state because even small
particles of the size of a pin-head cause
flaking of the bricks. The lime prevents
shrinkage of raw bricks. The sand alone is
infusible. But it slightly fuses at kiln
temperature in presence of lime. Such fused
sand works as a hard cementing material for
brick particles. The excess of lime causes
the brick to melt and hence its shape is lost.
The lumps of lime are converted into quick
lime after burning and this quick lime slakes
and expands in presence of moisture. Such
an action results in splitting of bricks into
pieces.
 Oxide of iron: A small quantity of oxide of
iron to the extent of about 5 to 6 percent is
desirable in good brick material. It helps as
lime to fuse sand. It also imparts red colour
to the bricks. The excess of oxide of iron
makes the bricks dark blue or blackish. If,
on the other hand, the quantity of iron oxide
is comparatively less, the bricks will be
yellowish in colour.
 Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia in
brick material imparts yellow tint to the
bricks and decreases shrinkage. However,
excess of magnesia leads to the decay of
bricks
Test for Bricks
Harmful ingredients in brick material
Following are the ingredients which are undesirable
in the brick material:
 Lime: The excess of lime is undesirable in
brick material.
 Iron pyrites: If iron pyrites are present in
brick material, the bricks are crystallized
and disintegrated during burning because of
the oxidation of the iron pyrites.
 Alkalis: These are mainly in the form of
soda and potash. The alkalis act as a flux in
the kiln during burning and they cause
bricks to fuse, twist and warp. As a result,
the bricks are melted and they lose their
shape. Further, the alkalis remaining in
bricks will absorb moisture from the
atmosphere, when bricks are used in
masonry. Such moisture, when evaporated,
leaves behind grey or white deposits on the
wall surface. The appearance of the building
as a whole is then seriously spoiled.
 Pebbles: The presence of pebbles or grits of
any kind is undesirable in brick material
because it will not allow the clay to be
mixed uniformly and thoroughly which will
result in weak and porous bricks. Also, the
brick containing pebbles will not break
regularly as desired.
 Vegetation and organic matter: The
presence of vegetation and organic matter in
brick material assists in burning. But if such
matter is not completely burnt, the bricks
become porous. This is due to the fact that
the gases will be evolved during the burning
of the carbonaceous matter and it will result
in the formation of small pores. Hence, it is
necessary to see that all these gases are
removed during the process of burning for
getting bricks of good quality.
1) Crushing Strength: The brick specimen is
immersed in water for 24 hours. The frog of
the brick is filled flush with 1:3 cement
mortar and the specimen is stored in damp
jute bag for 24 hours and then immersed in
clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is
placed in compression testing machine with
6 mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get
uniform load on the specimen. Then load is
 applied axially at a uniform rate of 14
N/mm2. The crushing load is noted. Then
the crushing strength is the ratio of crushing
load to the area of brick loaded. Average of
five specimens is taken as the crushing
strength.
2) Absorption Test: Brick specimen are
weighed dry. Then they are immersed in
water for a period of 24 hours. The
specimen is taken out and wiped with cloth.
The weight of each specimen in wet
condition is determined. The difference in
weight indicate the water absorbed. Then the
percentage absorption is the ratio of water
absorbed to dry weight multiplied by 100.
The average of five specimens is taken. This
value should not exceed 20 per cent. sharp
edges. To check it, 20 bricks are selected at
random and they are stacked along the
length, along the width and then along the
height. For the standard bricks of size 190
mm × 90 mm × 90 mm. IS code permits the
following limits: Lengthwise: 3680 to 3920
mm Width wise: 1740 to 1860 mm Height
wise: 1740 to 1860 mm.
The following field tests help in ascertaining
the good quality bricks:
(i) uniformity in size
(ii) uniformity in colour
(iii) structure
(iv) hardness test
(v) sound test
(vi) strength test.
3) Uniformity in Size: A good brick should
have rectangular plane surface and uniform
in size. This check is made in the field by
observation. (ii) Uniformity in Colour: A
good brick will be having uniform colour
throughout. This observation may be made
before purchasing the brick.
4) Structure: A few bricks may be broken in
the field and their cross-section observed.
The section should be homogeneous,
compact and free from defects such as holes
and lumps.
5) Sound Test: If two bricks are struck with
each other they should produce clear ringing
sound. The sound should not be dull.
6) Hardness Test: For this a simple field test
is scratch the brick with nail. If no
impression is marked on the surface, the
brick is sufficiently hard.
7) Efflorescence: The presence of alkalis in
brick is not desirable because they form
patches of gray powder by absorbing
moisture. Hence to determine the presence
of alkalis this test is performed as explained
below: Place the brick specimen in a glass
dish containing water to a depth of 25 mm in
a well ventilated room. After all the water is
absorbed or evaporated again add water for
a depth of 25 mm. After second evaporation
observe the bricks for white/grey patches.
The observation is reported as ‘nil’, ‘slight’,
‘moderate’, ‘heavy’ or serious to mean
(a) Nil: No patches
(b) Slight: 10% of area covered with
deposits
(c) Moderate: 10 to 50% area covered with
deposit but unaccompanied by flaking of the
surface.
(d) Heavy: More than 50 per cent area
covered with deposits but unaccompanied
by flaking of the surface.
(e) Serious: Heavy deposits of salt
accompanied by flaking of the surface.
Refractory Bricks
Refractory Bricks are having better heat resistant
quality and using for the inner lining of Chimney
and in Kiln of Industries Manufacturing Terracotta
Pipes & Terracotta Tiles. Refractory brick contacts
with flame directly, so refractory brick is mainly
applied to withstand flame broiled. Refractory brick
should have as high a melting temperature and as
low a coefficient of thermal expansion as possible.
These bricks are Stronger and will be having a
Compressive Strength of 125 kg /Sqcm practically.
Refractories are inorganic, non-metallic, porous and
heterogeneous materials composed of thermally
stable mineral aggregates, a binder phase and
additives. These materials have ability to retain its
physical shape and chemical identity when
subjected to high temperatures.
Refractories can be classified in the different
following ways.
Classification based on chemical composition 1.
Acid refractories –These are used in areas where
slag and atmosphere are acidic. They are stable to
acids but attacked by alkalis. Example of these
refractories are silica (SiO2), zirconia (ZrO2),
alumina, fire-clay refractories etc.
2.Basic refractories –These refractories are used on
areas where slags and atmosphere are basic, they
are stable to alkaline slag, dust and fumes at the
elevated temperatures. Example of these refractories
are magnesia, dolomite and chromite.
3.Neutral refractories – These refractories are
chemically stable to both acids and bases and used
in the areas where slag and environment are either
acidic or basic. Examples are carbon graphite,
chromites and alumina. Graphite is the least reactive
and is extensively used in the furnaces where the
process of oxidation can be controlled.
Classification based on physical form
1. Shaped refractories – These are commonly
known as refractory bricks and are those which
have fixed shape. The shapes can be standard shape
or special shape. Standard shaped bricks have
dimensions that are conformed to by most
refractory manufacturers and are generally
applicable to kilns and furnaces of the same type.
On the other hand, special shaped refractories are
specifically made for particular furnace. These
refractory shapes may not be applicable to another
furnace of the same type. Standard shaped
refractories are always machine pressed and thus
have uniformity of properties. Special shapes are
usually hand moulded and are normally associated
with slight variation in properties.
2. Unshaped refractories – These refractories are
without definite form and are only given shape after
application. It forms joint less lining and are also
known as monolithic refractories. These refractories
are further categorized as plastic refractories,
ramming mixes, castables, gunning mixes, fettling
mixes and mortars.
Classification based on method of manufacture
1. dry press process,
2. fused cast,
3. hand moulded,
4. formed (normal, fired or chemical bonded)
5.unformed (monolithic, plastics, ramming masses,
gunning, castables and spray masses).
6. Un-formed Dry Vibratable refractories
Classification based on the oxide content
1. single oxide refractories such as alumina,
magnesia, and zirconia,
2. mixed oxide refractories such as spinel and
mullite
3. non oxide refractories such as borides, carbides
and silicates.
Classification according to refractoriness
1. Low heat duty refractories – These refractories
have refractoriness in the range of 1520 deg C to
1630 deg C and have pyrometric cone equivalent
(PCE) value in the range of 19 to 28. Example of
these refractories is silica bricks.
2. Intermediate heat duty refractories – These
refractories have refractoriness in the range of 1630
deg C to 1670 deg C and have pyrometric cone
equivalent (PCE) value in the range of 28 to 30.
Example of these refractories is fire clay bricks.
3. High heat duty refractories – These refractories
have refractoriness in the range of 1670 deg C to
1730 deg C and have pyrometric cone equivalent
(PCE) value in the range of 30 to 33. Example of
these refractories is chromite bricks.
4. Super heat duty refractories – These refractories
have refractoriness greater than 1730 deg C and
have pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) value
greater than 33. Example of these refractories is
magnesite bricks.
Refractories act as a thermal barrier between a hot
medium and the wall of the containing vessel,
represent a chemical protective barrier against
corrosion, ensure a physical protection, prevent the
erosion of walls by the circulating hot medium and
act as thermal insulation for heat retention.
Below are some commonly used refractory
materials
1.Zirconia refractories- Zirconia refractories contain
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) which is a polymorphic
material. It has certain difficulties in its usage and
fabrication as a refractory material, hence it is
stabilized by incorporating small quantities of
calcium, magnesium and cerium oxides. The
properties of zirconia refractories are dependent on
the degree of stabilization and quantity of stabilizer
as well as the quantity of original raw material.
Zirconia refractories have a very high strength at
room temperature which is maintained up to
temperatures as high as 1480 deg C. They are used
for high temperature application. Since the thermal
conductivity of zirconium dioxide is much lower
than other refractory materials, therefore, it is used
as a high temperature insulating refractory. Zirconia
refractories have very low thermal losses and does
not reacts with liquid metals and hence it is useful
making refractory crucibles.
2.Alumina refractories – Alumina refractories
contain alumina (Al2O3) which is one of the most
chemically stable oxides. Alumina offers excellent
hardness, strength and spalling resistance. It is
insoluble in water, superheated steam and in most
inorganic acids and alkalis. Alumina refractories
carry all purpose characteristics of fireclay
refractories into higher temperature ranges which
make these refractories suitable for lining furnaces
up to 1850 deg C. Alumina refractories have high
resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmospheres.
With increase in alumina content, the refractoriness
of the high alumina refractories increases. These
refractories are specified by the amount of alumina
in it. The 50 %, 60 %, 70 % and 80 % classes
contain their respective alumina content with an
allowable range of +/- 2.5 %.
3.Silica refractories – Silica refractories are those
refractories which contain at least 93 % silica
(SiO2). Silica refractories have the outstanding
property of excellent mechanical strength at
temperatures approaching their actual fusion point.
This property of silica refractories contrast that of
many other refractories which begins to fuse and
creep at temperatures considerably lower than their
fusion points. The major drawback of silica
refractories is that they are susceptible to spalling at
temperatures below 650 deg C. Temperature
fluctuations above 650 deg C do not affect silica
refractory adversely and in this range it is classed as
a good spalling resistant refractory. Silica
refractories need special precaution during heating
and during cooling since it undergoes phase
changes. Silica refractories are not of practical use
if the furnace is to cool down to room temperature
frequently.
4.Magnesite refractories – Magnesite refractories
are chemically basic refractories containing at least
85 % magnesium oxide. They are manufactured
either from natural occurring magnesite or sea water
magnesia. Raw magnesite is dead burnt to produce
magnesia (MgO) for making these refractories.
These refractories have excellent resistance to basic
slags specially lime and iron rich slags but their
physical properties are relatively poor. For steel
making furnaces especially BOF (basic oxygen
furnace) normally carbon is added to magnesia to
produce magnesia carbon refractories. Magnesia
carbon refractories have better resistance to highly
basic slags at high temperatures.
5.Chromite refractories –Chromite refractories is
along with chromite, magnesite at present. There is
difference between chrome magnesite and
magnesite chrome refractories. While chrome-
magnesite refractories usually contain 15 % to 35 %
Cr2O3 an 42 % to 50 % MgO, magnesite- chrome
refractories contain at least 60 % MgO and 8 % to
18 % Cr2O3. Chrome magnesite refractories are
used for building the critical paths of the high
temperature furnaces. These refractories can
withstand corrosive slags and gases and have high
refractoriness. Magnesite refractories are suitable
for service at the highest temperatures an in contact
with more basic slags. These refractories have better
spalling resistance than chrome magnesite
refractories.
fireclay refractories are super duty, high duty,
medium duty and low duty. These classes cover the
range from around 18 % alumina to 44 % alumina
and from about 50 % silica to 80 % silica.
Characteristically, fireclay bricks begin to soften far
below their fusion temperature and under load
actual deformation take place. The amount of
deformation depends upon the load and once started
this deformation is slow but continuous process
unless the load or the temperature is reduced. Due
to this reason fire clay bricks are not being used in
wide sprung arches in furnaces operating
continuously at high temperatures.
8.Insulating refractories –Insulating refractories are
high porosity refractories with low thermal
conductivity used to reduce the rate of heat flow
and thus reduce heat losses by maximizing heat
conservation within a furnace. Insulating
refractories are lighter with low densities.

6.Carbon refractories – In carbon refractories the

principle component is carbon. These refractories
are characterized of a high refractoriness, high
thermal conductivity and high chemical resistance
but are highly susceptible to oxidation. Because of
low interfacial tension between carbon and slag
melts, there is little slag infiltration. Carbon
refractories are extremely resistant to thermal shock
because of high thermal conductivity and low
thermal expansion. carbon refractories are
susceptible to attack by oxygen, steam and CO2 in
an oxidizing atmosphere above 400 deg C.

7.Fireclay refractories – Fireclay refractories are

essentially hydrated aluminium silicates with minor
proportion of other minerals. The composition of
fireclay refractories consists of SiO2 less than 78 %
and Al2O3 less than 44 %. Four standard classes of