The Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa

Bavisha Koovarjee
 The Bushveld Igneous complex
• The world’s largest layered igneous complex, covers 66, 000 km2 and up to 9 km thick
• World class ore deposit
• Precambrian in age - ~2,06 billion years old
• Made of the main mafic/ultramafic body (Rustenburg Layered Suite)
• The roof is made of felsic volcanics (Rooiberg Group) and Rashoop + Lebowa granitic rocks
• Flat, funnel shaped intrusion into the Transvaal Supergroup

• The Rustenburg layered Suite (RLS) outcrops as four limbs (eastern, western, northern and far western)
• Mineralization includes; Platinum group metals, (PGEs), Cr, Ni, Fe, Cu, V
• Mineralization in granites includes;
Sn, F, Mo, REEs

• Cawthorn, R.G. (1999). The platinum and palladium resources of the

Bushveld Complex, South African Journal of Science, 95, 481-489.

• Kinnaird, J.A. (2005). The Bushveld Large Igneous Province, <

http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/sites/default/files/BushveldLIP.pdf>

• Eales, H.V. and Cawthorn, R.G. (1996). The Bushveld Complex. In: Cawthorn,
R.G. (Eds) Layered Intrusions. Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 181-230.

• Barnes, S-J. and Maier, W.D. (2002). Platinum-Group Element Distribution in

the Rustenburg Layered Suite of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. In:
Cabri, L.T. (Eds) The Geology, Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral
Beneficiation of Platinum-Group Elements. Canadian Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Vol. 54, 553-580.
 Top 5 largest
Major platinum
countries producing
in global countries-2017
mine production of
platinum from 2015 to 2019 (in metric tons)
Bushveld Igneous Complex
Norilsk
The Great Dike
Sudbury Complex

Stillwater Complex

https://www.bizvibe.com/blog/top-5-platinum-producers-in-the-world/

Top 10 global platinum mining companies-2017

https://www.statista.com/statis
tics/273624/platinum-metal-res
erves-by-country/

https://www.bizvibe.com/blog/top-10-largest-platinum-mining-companies/
 Active
Waterberg Project-JOGMEC

mining
Platreef Project-JOGMEC in the
Bushveld
Igneous
Complex
http://www.overendstudio.co.za/websites/rbplats/bus-man-rasimone-venture.php
Bushveld Ultramafic`s
PLATINUM GROUP ELEMENTS (PGEs)
• Principle commodity
• Platinum, palladium, rhodium,
iridium, ruthenium & osmium
• Mostly from UG2 & Merensky
Reef
CHROMITE
• Cr2O3
• Chromium
• Stainless steel

MAGNETITE
• Fe3O4
• Source of vanadium
• Upper Zone
UG1
VANADIUM
• V2O5
• Derived from magnetite CHROMITITE
Bifurcating chromitite seams exposed at
• Used for hardening steel
Dwars River in the eastern Bushveld Complex
 Bushveld Granites
DIMENSION STONE
• MZ gabbronorites- Pyramid Hills in Brits-Pretoria • Gravestones
• Working surfaces (kitchen, bathroom etc) • Face stones for buildings

TIN FLOURITE •
ANDALUSITE
Contact MM of mudstones Transvaal
• Cassiterite (SnO2)
• CaF2 SPG BIC
• Hardening effect on copper
• Lebowa Granite • Forms new minerals = andalusite
• Lebowa Granite
• High melting temperatures = 2000°C
• Others: • Used to manufacture refectory bricks
• Rare Earth
Elements (REEs)
• Molybdenuim
(Mo)
 1. The volcanic event: Rooiberg Group

• Unconformably overlies the Transvaal Supergroup

• At 2,06 Ga, 2 types of lavas erupted an terminated Transvaal SPG deposition (due to mantle plume): basaltic in rivers and lakes, followed by
explosive rhyolite on land
• Weathering of rhyolites forms a very red surface hence type locality = Rooiberg near Bela Bela/Warmbaths
• RG consists of 4 formations: Schrikkloof formations (youngest unit), Kwaggasnek (rhyodacite), Damwal (dacite) Dullstroom (oldest)
• Up to 3,5km thick
2. The 1st intrusive event: Rustenburg layered suite
•7km thick layered sill that intruded the layered
sedimentary rocks of the Transvaal SPG
• Magmas were erupting very rapidly (over 1-2 Mya), new
pulses of magma were being added before the previous
ones had completely solidified
• Basaltic magma erupts at high temperatures = 1200°C
• It cools and solidifies very quickly---at 900°C it is
completely solid
• Hence continuous injections or pulses of magma over a
short period of time, retains/prolongs the heat in the
system, allowing for crystals to grow larger
• Conditions suitable for anorthosite, chromitite, gabbro`s
and pyroxenites.
• If the cooling rate is slower, differentiation or fractional
crystallization occurs.
• Differentiation/fractional crystallization: Process by
which crystals are separated from magma as it
crystalizes, resulting in the formation of layers of rocks
of different mineral composition
• Cyclic unit: a series of repeating layers
Cross section through RLS: W, E & N Limbs
 3. The 2nd intrusive event: Rashoop Granophyre
Suite & Lebowa Granite Suite
• 1.5 - 3.5 km thick, with an areal extent of some 30 000 km2
• Heating and melting of the deeper of the crust was caused by the basaltic outpouring of the RLS
• This melt (granitic) eventually rose up ponding/collecting directly above the RLS and Rooiberg Group
• This granite is highly resistant to erosion and forms the high Plateaus of Sekhukhuneland and the
prominent hills of Mokopane
• These granites host economic tin and fluorite deposits.
E.g. Zaaiplaats
• Some quarries produce dimension stone which is highly
sought after for its blood red colour
• The Rashoop Granophyre Suite intruded the RLS
Rooiberg Group as dykes
• The Lebowa Granite Suite subsequently metasomatically
altered (deposition of secondary cassiterite, tourmaline
and carbonate) the entire Group, particularly in its NW
part
Stratigraphic sequence of layering the Rustenburg
Layered Suite : E & W Limbs
Marginal Zone (MGZ)
• Occurs at the bottom of the complex
• Unlayered
• 150 m thick
• Composed of variably contaminated norite + pyroxenite

Lower Zone (LZ)

• ~1050 m thick
• Alternating dunite, harzburgite + orthopyroxene layers

Bifurcating chromitite seams exposed at Dwars River

in the eastern Bushveld Complex
Stratigraphic sequence of layering the Rustenburg
Layered Suite : E & W Limbs
Critical Zone (CZ)
• Hosts the world’s largest platinum and chromium deposits
• Divided into Lower and Upper Critical Zone
• Lower Critical Zone (LCZ)
• 800 m thick
• Composed of pyroxenite and chromite layers
• Upper Critical Zone (UCZ)
•400-1000 m think
•The base of the UCZ is defined by the first
appearance of plagioclase
•Predominantly composed of norite and chromite
layers
Chromitite layers
• All the chromitite layers of BIC occur in CZ and are grouped into
lower (LG), middle (MG) & upper (UG) groups:
LG chromitites: up to
7 layers (LG 1-7), LG5-7 are economic. LG6 NB
MG Chromitites: 4 main layers (MG 1-4), MG1 NB
UG
Chromitites: 2 main layers (UG 1-3), UG2 NB, PGES, low grade
Stratigraphic sequence of layering the Rustenburg
Layered Suite : E & W Limbs
Critical Zone: Merensky Reef (MR)
• Occurs above UG2 upper critical zone
• Discovered near Steelpoort in 1924 by Dr Hans Merensky
• Ranges from a few centimetres to 10–12m in thickness
• PGE enriched zone only occurring in the W + E Limbs
• Transgressive pyroxenite layer at the top of the UCZ
• Hosted in pegmatoidal feldspathic pyroxenite
• Base metal sulphides: pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite,

MR: 9-8g/t MR: 7g/t pyrite + cubanite. Minor galena+ sphalerite

PR: 4g/t
UG2: 6g/t UG2: 7g/t Critical Zone: Bastard Reef
• distinctive cyclic unit above , the Merensky Reef but contains
no mineralization
• thin basal chromite (usually < 5 mm), a coarse pyroxenite
(slightly pegmatoidal in places) around 2–3 m thick, norite and
the Giant mottled anorthosite which is c. 50 m thick.
Stratigraphic Sequence of layering the Rustenburg
Layered SuiteMain: EZone& W Limbs
• Thickest zone 3000-3400 m
• Composed of norite overlain by gabbronorite interlayered with
anorthosites
• No chromite
• Low grade PGE mineralisation in some places
• Dimension stone = black & grey granite = resistant gabbro
norites = form conspicuous topographic features = Pyramid Hills
in Brits-Pretoria
Upper Zone
• ~2000 m thick
• Defined by the first appearance of cumulus magnetite in
ferrogabbro
• Composed of anorthosite, troctolite, ferrogabbro and diorite,
with multiple magnetite layers
• =norite in base, gabbronorite,
• =cumulus apatite associated with diorite occurs in uppermost
subzones
• = up to 25 cumulus magnetite (massive-disseminated)
• =Vanadium + titanium occur in magnetitite layers of the Upper
 Stratigraphic Sequence of
layering the Rustenburg
BIC Layered Suite: N Limb
Platreef (PR)
• Extends northward from Mokopane for 35km & dips
Transvaal SPG 40°E
• 20x thicker than Merensky Reef
• Largest PGE concentration known
• PGE, Ni, Cu-bearing composite pyroxenite assemblage
• Developed on or close to the eastern floor contact of
the N Limb unlike MR
• From N-S transgresses quartzite + Shale formations of Transvaal SPG (Timeball
+ Duitschland formations), & further north Penge BIF + Malmani dolomite
further north (Tweefontein farm) and lastly, Archean granite basement
(Zwartfontein)
• Results in contamination & xenoliths
• Dolomite + magma = calc-silicate xenoliths or altered to parapyroxenites
• Archean basement granite + magma = granofels
Stratigraphic Sequence of layering the Rustenburg
Layered Suite: N Limb
Platreef (PR)
• Critical Zone in PR layers do not correlate directly with Critical
Zone E + W Limbs
• Hence pyroxenitic assemblage at base = Platreef in N Limb = CZ
• Thick feldspathic, pyroxenite + harzburgite assemblage
• Occurs on eastern flank of the N limb
• Mineralization = Ni, Cu and PGE deposit
• 1-4km of highly variable sequence of pyroxenite, harzburgite,
gabbronorite + xenolithic & contaminated in some parts
• Sharp contact with & transgresses Transvaal SPG sediments + the
basement granite (Kaapvaal Craton)
• PR is overlain by MZ & UZ that correlate directly with E + W Limbs
Main Zone
• Composed of gabbronorite
• No chromite
Upper Zone
• anorthosite, troctolite, ferrogabbro and diorite, with multiple
magnetite layers
How
did the
Northern
Limb
form ?
Kinnaird et al.,2005
 How did the Northern Limb form ?
The Platreef is a broadly horizontal sill like sheet that resulted from several pulses of
magma:
• the earliest intrusive phase was equivalent to Lower or Lower Critical Zone
magmas. This intruded within the Transvaal metasedimentary sequence as sills.
• As further pulses followed, some metasedimentary material became eroded and
detached from the floor and later magma flowed under or over these layers.
• Some of the later pulses also interfingered with the early Platreef pulses.
• Followed by tectonic activity that caused folding and tilting of the sequence
• Later Main Zone norites/ gabbronorites also intruded the Platreef pyroxenitic
packages as sills, sometimes incorporating metasedimentary rocks from the top of
the Platreef.
• The unit between the Main Zone gabbronorites is thus a complex zone of inter-
fingered lithologies, including some Main Zone.
Mechanisms of layering in the RLS: Gravity settling
• Basic mechanism of fractional crystallization
• Crystals settle to the floor of the magma
chamber under the influence of gravity due to
differences in density
• Effective in low viscosity, high temperature
melts = mafic-ultramafic melts
• E.g. Skaegaard (East Greenland) intrusion in has
relatively ordered, sub-horizontal layering due
to gravity settling
• BUT why are plagioclase rich layers found
above olivine+ pyroxene rich layers (denser)?
• Why are other chromitite seams developed
along steeply inclined, vertical & sometimes
even overhanging topography of unit
boundaries without any notable changes in
thickness?
Latypov et al., 2015
 Mechanisms of layering in the RLS : 3 types of Merensky Reef (MR)
Gravity settling does not
explain the accumulation
of continuous layers of
chromitite along steeply
inclined, vertical &
overhanging topography
of unit boundaries
without any notable
changes in thickness

1. Normal MR: sheet like reef (planar normal) that has experienced uniform erosion
2. Pothole MR: near circular excavations that cut into the footwall of the MR
3. Anti-pothole MR: mound like masses of footwall rocks that stand above the planar
normal MR
Latypov et al., 2015
• Magmatic chambers develop by
Mechanisms of layering in the RLS:
in situ growth, mostly inwards
from their margins. In situ (in place) crystallization
• As the magma chamber
gradually loses heat, minerals
crystallize from margins inwards.
• Thermal currents prevent settling
of crystalized grains
• crystallisation occurs directly at
a crystal–liquid interface.
• All minerals including chromite
and sulphides crystallize in situ,
directly on the chamber floor,
accompanied by redeposition of
the minerals in association with
convection in the magma
chamber
• PGE bearing sulphides also
accumulate by in situ
crystallization Latypov et al., 2015
 The origin of platinum deposits in
layered intrusions
• PGEs concentrated within sulphide mineralization
• Base metal sulphides: pyrrhotite, pentlandite,
chalcopyrite, galena+ sphalerite, pyrite + cubanite.
• PGE enrichment occurs by:
1. Gravity settling and in situ crystallization
2. Magma mixing: Influx of magma with different
composition e.g. cyclic units in RLS
3. Sulphide immiscibility
4. Reaction of magma with country rocks e.g. Platreef
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-examples-of-base-metal-sulfide-assemblages-of-the-B
d-Complex-From-left-to_fig2_257331008
 Mineralization in the Bushveld Granites
--Northern Limb
Four main associations:
1. Cassiterite-tourmaline sulphide association = Zaaiplaats
2. Fluorite-haematite association = Blokspruit
3. Polymetallic molybdenite-fluorite-sulphide association =
Vergenoeg
4. Sulphide carbonate ore-bodies in both Bushveld acid rocks +
in the surrounding Transvaal SPG = Spoedwel

Zaaiplaats Zaaiplaats
Lease Granite Bobbejaankop Granite

Flourite + sulphides:
Bobbejaankop
Granite

Tourmaline pipe Fluorite + tourmaline

 Mining and extraction in BIC
• Mostly open pit mining
• Currently chromite is extracted by the board and pillar
underground mining method
• Main targets for underground mining = LG6, MG1, and
UG2
• Main targets for open pit mining = MG3 & MG4,
lowermost LG layers
• Most of chromite ore is beneficiated by smelting it to a
Mogalakwena, Mokopane
higher value ferrochrome product.
• Nine ferrochrome smelters beneficiate chromite ore in
E + W Limbs
• Other ferrochrome smelters beneficiate further to
produce steel: near Middleburg (Columbus Steel),
Arcelor Mittal (Vanderbijlpark) & Richards Bay
• Chromite ore is trucked and or/railed to the ports of
Maputo, Richards Bay and Durban for export markets Samancor Chrome Mines
 References
• Ashwal.L.D., Webb, S.J, and Knoper, M.W. (2005). Physical and mineralogical properties of Bushveld rocks: Magnetic susceptibility, density and mineral chemistry profiles in the 2950 m Bellevue drillcore, Northern
Lobe. South African Journal of Geology, 108, 199 – 232.

• Armitage, P.E.B., McDonald, I., Edwards, J.S. and Manby, G.M. (2002). Platinum-group element mineralization in the Platreef and calc-silicate footwall at Sandsloot, Potgietersrus District, South Africa . Applied Earth
science (Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy B), 111, B36-B45.

• Buchanan, D.L., Nolan, J., Suddaby, P., Rouse, J.E., Viljoen, M.J. and Davenport, J.W.J. (1981). The genesis of sulphide mineralization in a portion of the Potgietersrus limb of the Bushveld Complex. Economic Geology,
76, 568-579
• Cawthorn, R.D. and Walraven, F. (1998). Emplacement and Crystallization Time for the Bushveld Complex, Journal of Petrology, 39, 1669-1687.
 
• Cawthorn, R.G., and Webb, S.J. (2001). Connectivity between the western and eastern limbs of the Bushveld Complex, Tectonophysics, 330, 195-209.

• Gain, S.B. and Mostert, A.B. (1982). The geological setting of the platinoid and base metal sulphide mineralization in the Platreef of the Bushveld Complex on Drenthe, north of Potgietersrus. Economic Geology, 77,
1395-1404.

• Harris, C. and Chaumba, J.B. (2001). Crustal contamination and fluid-rock interaction during the formation of the Platreef, Northern Limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Journal of Petrology, 42, 1321-1347.

• Kinnaird, J.A. 2005, The Bushveld large igneous province, http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/sites/default/files/BushveldLIP.pdf (August 2020)

• Kinnaird, J.A. (2005). Geochemical evidence for multiple emplacements in the southern Platreef. Applied Earth Science (Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy), 114, 225-242.

• Kinnaird, J.A., Kruger, F.J., Nex, P.A.M. and Cawthorn, R.G. (2002). Chromitite formation- a key to understanding processes of platinum enrichment, Trans.Inst Min. Metall, (Sect, B: Appl. Earth sci.), 111, 23-35.

• Kinnaird, J.A., Hutchinson, D., Schurmann, L., Nex, P.A.M. and de Lange. (2005). Petrology and mineralisation of the southern Platreef: northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa . Mineralium Deposita.
40, 576–597

• Latypov, R., Chistyakova, S., Barnes, S. J., Hunt, E. J. (2017). Origin of platinum deposits in layered intrusions by in situ crystallization: evidence from undercutting Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Complex.  Journal of
Petrology, 58 , 715-761.

• Latypov, R., Chistyakova, S., Page, A. and Hornsey. 2015. Field Evidence for the In Situ Crystallization of the Merensky Reef. Journal of Petrology. 56, 2341-2372

• Lee, C.A. (1996). A review of mineralization in the Bushveld Complex and some other layered mafic intrusions. In: Cawthorn, R.G. (Eds) Layered Intrusions. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 103-146.

• Pollard. P.J., Taylor, R,G., Taylor, R.P. and Groves. D.L. (1991). Petrographic and geochemical evolution of pervasively altered Bushveld granites at the Zaaiplaats tin mine. Economic Geology, 86(7), 1401-1433

A review of the behaviour of PGEs within Natural magmatic sulphide ore systems (Holwell and McDonald, 2010, page 26)
https://scholar.google.co.za/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=A+review+of+the+behaviour+of+PGEs+within+Natural+magmatic+sulphide+ore+systems+%28Holwell+and+McDonald%2C+2010%29&btnG=