Blood & circulation

Functions of the circulatory system:

Distribute nutrients,
Transport and exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide,
Remove waste materials,
Distribute secretions of endocrine glands,
Prevent excessive bleeding,
Prevent infection
Regulate body temperature.
3 Major Parts of the Circulatory system

Blood Vessels - routes blood travels

Heart – pumps or pushes blood through body
Blood – carries oxygen, food, & waste through
body
 Blood Cell Development
 Stem cells in bone marrow are
unspecialized cells that retain the capacity
to divide
 Some daughter cells of stem cells
differentiate to form blood cells
 Body must continually replace
blood cells
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 Composition of blood
 The hematocrit is determined by centrifuging blood
to separate it into components : plasma ,
erythrocytes , leucocytes and platelets .
The hematocrit‫ لاـهيماتوـكريت‬is the percentage of
blood volume composed of erythrocytes and is
approximately 42-45 .
hematocrit = height of erythrocyte column X 100
height of whole blood column
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 Plasma is the most abundant component ,
making up approximately 55 % of blood volume ,
 leucocytes and platelets together constitute less
than 1 % of total blood volume.
Plasma : is the liquid component of blood ,
consisting of water and dissolved solutes‫ذاوـئـب‬
 PLASMA PROTEINS
1 - Albumins :
- synthesized in the liver
-The most abundant plasma proteins .
- Responsible for the osmotic ressure Of
plasma .
- affects the movement of fluid across
capillaries .

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 The globulins :
a – Transport lipids , steroid hormones .
B – play a critical role in the blood’s

ability to form clots .

C – important in defending the body
against foreign substances .

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 Fibrinogen:
a – synthesis in the liver
B – it is a key substance in the
formation of blood clots .

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 : Cellular compound
Erythrocytes : red blood cells
(RBCs ) are the most abundant cells
in the blood .
- numbering about 5 million per cubic
millimeter of blood .
They are described a-biconcave
disks
 RBCs contain spectrin which is a
fibrous protein .
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• The spectrin is flexible, giving RBCs
the ability to bend and flex as
necessary to move through capillaries
• The biconcave shape gives
erythrocytes a large surface area ,
important for exchange of oxygen and
CO2 between body cells and lung
tissues .
• The major function of erythrocytes is
to transport O2 & CO2 in the blood .

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RBCs have a high capacity for carrying
these gases because they contain in
their cytoplasm two protein :
hemoglobin & carbonic anhydrase .
- Hemoglobin binds & transport O2
&CO2
- carbonic anhydrase essential for
transport of CO2

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 Hemoglobin is the most abundant
protein in RBCs .
 Hb is composed of four polypeptide
chain of two types ( two alpha & two
beta ) .
 each of which has heme group .
Each Hb can bind four O2 .

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 LEUKOCYTES
LEUKOCYTES ( WBCs ) numbering about
4000 – 10000 / cubic millimeter .
LEUKOCYTES are nucleated .
Leukocytes are present in bloodstream and
in other body tissues ,due to their mobility
,and migrate through tissue to defend the
body against invading microorganisms and
other foreign materials .

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TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
1 – Neutrophils .
2 – Eosinophils .
3 – Basophils .
4 – Monocytes .
5 – Lymphocytes .

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 Neutrophils - 1
• 50 – 80 % of blood Leukocytes are
neutrophils . and are the most
important defense activities in the
body .
• Phagocytic cells .
• Neutrophils circulate in the blood for
7 – 10 hours and then migrate into
the tissues ,where they live for only a
few days .
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 Eosinophils - 2
About 1- 4 % of all Leukocytes are
eosinophils .
They are phagocytic cells .
they discharging ‫حرر‬333‫ ت‬toxic molecules from
their cytoplasmic granules .

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 Basophils – 3
Basophile are
nonphagocytic
cels.
It releasing toxic
to damage
invaders

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 Monocytes- 4
It form 2-8 % of the leukocytes .it is
important for defenese.
It circulate for few hours in blood and
then migrate into tissues and
developed to very active phagocytic
cells(macrophages)

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 Lymphocytes - 5
It form 20 -40 % of all leukocytes .
It form 99% of cells found in
interstitial fluid.
It form three types B,T & Null cells .
Important in immune system.

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 The Heart

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 The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular
organ located in the thoracic cavity
between the lungs behind the
sternum.
 The heart muscle forms the
myocardium
 The pericardium is the outer
membranous sac with lubricating fluid.

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 The heart has four chambers: two upper, thin-
walled atria, and two lower, thick-walled ventricles.
 The septum is a wall dividing the right and left
sides.
 Atrioventricular valves occur between the atria and
ventricles – the tricuspid valve on the right and the
bicuspid valve on the left; both valves are
reinforced by chordae tendinae attached to
muscular projections within the ventricles.
 Prolapse of the AV valves is prevented because the
valve cusps are held in place by strands of
connective tissue known as the chordae tendineae
that extend from the edges of the cusps to papillary
muscles

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 Semilunar valves
occur between the
ventricles and the
attached arteries
semilunar valves
allow blood to flow
from ventricle to
artery
( left ventricle to
aorta, and right
ventricle to
pulmonary trunk )
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AV valves open or close
in response to cyclic
changes in pressure that
occur with every heart
beat
when atrial pressure is
higher than ventricular
pressure , the valves open
 when ventricular
pressure becomes higher
than atrial pressure , the
valves close
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 The path of blood flow through
the heart and vasculature
• the vasculature is
divided into a
pulmonary circuit
which supplies blood
to the lungs and a
systemic circuit
which supplies blood
to all the other organs
and tissues of the
body
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• Blood is ejected
from the right
ventricle through
the pulmonary
semi lunar valve
into the
pulmonary
trunk , which
divides into left
and right
pulmonary
arteries,
carrying blood
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• The pulmonary veins carry blood away from
the lungs and deliver it to the left atrium. From
there blood moves into the left ventricle,

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• the left ventricle pumps Blood into the aorta ,
which delivers it to the systemic organs and
tissues

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• . Blood returns to the heart by way of the
venae cavae, which carry it to the right
atrium.From there the blood enters the
right ventricle.

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 The Heartbeat
 Each heartbeat is called a cardiac cycle.
 When the heart beats, the two atria contract
together, then the two ventricles contract;
then the whole heart relaxes.
 Systole is the contraction of heart chambers;
diastole is their relaxation.
 The heart sounds, lub-dup, are due to the
closing of the atrioventricular valves,
followed by the closing of the semilunar
valves.
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• The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker
than the wall of the right ventricle , it allows it to
generate the force necessary to pump blood
throughout the body.

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 Electrical activity of the heart
• The heart muscle fibers
that make up the heart ‘s
conduction system are
specialized to initiate
action potentials and
conduct them rapidly
through the myocardium
If the heart of a frog is removed from the
body and all neural innervations are
severed,
it will still continue to beat as long as the
myocardial
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cells remain alive.
In a normal heart, only one region
demonstrates spontaneous electrical activity
and by this means functions as a pacemaker.
This pacemaker region is called the sino-
atrial node, or SA node.
The SA node is located in the right atrium,
near the opening of the superior vena cava.

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 Conduction and Contraction
 SA node in right atrium
is pacemaker SA node
 Electrical signals cause
contraction of atria
 Signal flows to AV node
and down septum to
ventricles
Pacemaker cells are different from other cells
because they can fire action potentials in the
absence of any external stimulus , and do so in a
. regular , periodic fashion
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 Control of the heartbeat by pacemakers
• the AV node rarely
has a chance to
fire an action
potential because
when the SA node
fire an action
potential , cells in
the AV node go into
a refractory period
and because SA
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node has a higher
if for some reason the SA node fails to fire an
action potential the AV node will initiate an
action potential and if the AV node is unable
to drive ventricular contraction certain cells in
the purkinje fibers can take over,but with a
lower frequency.

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the cardiac cycle is divided into two distinct
periods :
• diastole ( ventricular relaxation ) during
which ventricular filling occurs , and
• systole ( ventricular contraction ) during
which the exit of blood from the ventricles
( ejection ) occurs.
• Aortic pressure varies throughout the
cardiac cycle , it rises to a maximum
during systole( systolic pressure SP ) .
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• Heart rate is the number of times the heart
beats in one minute. The average adult
resting heart rate is 75 beats per minute
(bpm).
• Stroke volume is the amount of blood
pumped by each ventricle with each
heartbeat. The average adult resting stroke
volume is 70 ml per beat.
• Cardiac output is the amount of blood
pumped out by each ventricle in one minute.

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 cardiac output ( CO ) is depends on the
heart rate ( HR )and stroke volume : CO=
HR× SV.
 The heart is regulated by sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurons and hormones
( extrinsic control ) and
 by factors operating entirely within the heart
( intrinsic control )
 Thyroid hormones, ,insulin and glucagon
increase the force of myocardial contraction.
 sympathetic nervous system increases the
strength and rate of ventricular contractile
cells
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 The Electrocardiogram
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of
the electrical changes that occur in the
myocardium during a cardiac cycle.
 The heart electrical activity can be recorded
using electrodes placed on the skin surface ,
yielding an electrocardiogram ( ECG )
 There are two types of ECG recording electrodes,
or “leads.”:
1- bipolar limb leads
2- unipolar leads

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-The bipolar limb
leads record the
voltage between
electrodes placed on
the wrists and legs.
-These bipolar ,lead I
(right arm to left
arm), lead II (right
arm to left leg), and
lead III (left arm to
left leg).
-The right leg is used
as a ground lead.

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- In the unipolar leads, voltage is recorded
between a single “exploratory electrode”
placed on the body and an electrode that is
built into the electrocardiograph and
maintained at zero potential (ground).
The unipolar limb leads are placed on the right
arm, left arm, and left leg, and are abbreviated AVR,
AVL, and AVF, respectively.
The unipolar chest leads are labeled 1 through 6,
starting from the midline position.

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There are thus
atotal of twelve
standard ECG
leads that
“view” the
changing
pattern of the
heart’s
electrical
activity from
different
perspectives

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Atrial depolarization creates the P wave,
ventricle depolarization creates the QRS
wave, and repolarization of the ventricles
produces the T wave.
 The Blood Vessels
 The cardiovascular system
has three types of blood
vessels:
 Arteries (and arterioles) –
carry blood away from the
heart
 Capillaries – where nutrient
and gas exchange occur
 Veins (and venules) – carry
blood toward the heart.

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 The Arteries
 Arteries and arterioles take blood away
from the heart.
 The largest artery is the aorta.
 The middle layer of an artery wall consists
of smooth muscle that can constrict to
regulate blood flow and blood pressure.
 Arterioles can constrict or dilate, changing
blood pressure.

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 The beating of the heart is necessary to
homeostasis because it creates pressure
that propels blood in arteries and the
arterioles.
 Arterioles lead to the capillaries where
nutrient and gas exchange with tissue
fluid takes place.

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 Blood Flow in Arteries
 Blood pressure due to the pumping of the
heart accounts for the flow of blood in the
arteries.
 Systolic pressure is high when the heart
expels the blood.
 Diastolic pressure occurs when the heart
ventricles are relaxing.
 Both pressures decrease with distance
from the left ventricle because blood
enters more and more arterioles and
arteries.
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 The Capillaries
 Capillaries have walls only one cell thick to
allow exchange of gases and nutrients
with tissue fluid.

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 Blood Flow in Capillaries
 Blood moves slowly in capillaries because
there are more capillaries than arterioles.
 This allows time for substances to be
exchanged between the blood and tissues.

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 The Veins
 Venules drain blood from capillaries, then
join to form veins that take blood to the
heart.
 Veins have much less smooth muscle
and connective tissue than arteries.
 Veins often have valves that prevent the
backward flow of blood when closed.

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 The Venous System
 Blood flows from capillaries into venules, then on
to veins
 Veins are large-diameter vessels with some
smooth muscle in wall
 Valves in some veins prevent blood from flowing
backward

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 Blood Flow in Veins
 Venous blood flow is dependent upon:
1) skeletal muscle contraction
2) presence of valves in veins
3) respiratory movements.
 Compression of veins causes blood to
move forward past a valve that then
prevents it from returning backward.

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 Changes in thoracic and abdominal
pressure that occur with breathing also
assist in the return of blood.
 Varicose veins develop when the valves of
veins become weak.
 Hemorrhoids (piles) are due to varicose
veins in the rectum.

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 Cardiovascular Disorders

 Major cardiovascular disorders include:

 atherosclerosis,
 stroke,
 heart attack, and
 hypertension.

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 A cerebrovascular accident, or stroke,
results when an embolus lodges in a
cerebral blood vessel or a cerebral blood
vessel bursts; a portion of the brain dies
due to lack of oxygen.
 A myocardial infarction, or heart attack,
occurs when a portion of heart muscle
dies due to lack of oxygen.

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 Atherosclerosis is due to a build-up of
fatty material (plaque), mainly cholesterol,
under the inner lining of arteries.
 The plaque can cause a thrombus (blood
clot) to form.
 Arteries thicken, lose
elasticity, and fill up
with cholesterol and
lipids
 High LDL
increases risk
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 Blood Pressure
 Highest in arteries, lowest in veins
 Usually measured in the brachial artery
 Systolic pressure is peak pressure
– Ventricular contraction
 Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure
– Ventricular relaxation

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 Hypertension
• Hypertension is present when systolic
pressure is 140 or greater or diastolic
pressure is 90 or greater; (Blood pressure
above 140/90 )
• Tends to be genetic
• May also be influenced by diet
• Contributes to atherosclerosis
“Silent killer”: few outward signs

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 Hemostasis
 Blood vessel spasm, platelet plug
formation, blood coagulation
 Clotting mechanism
– Prothrombin is converted to thrombin
– Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin
– Fibrin forms net that entangles cells
and platelets

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