CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY
Methodology
 A researchmethod refers only to the various specific tools or
ways (procedures and techniques) data can be collected and
analysed

questionnaire interview checklist data analysis

 What is Methodology?
◦ Who are your samples?
◦ Why did you collect certain data?
◦ What data do you need to collect?
◦ Where do you collect it?
◦ How do you collect it? (Instrument / duration)
◦ How do you analyse it?
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design
 Framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to
combine various components of research.
 It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a
particular methodology
 The design of a research topic is used to explain the type of
research (see pg 1-2)
 There are three main sections of research design: Data collection,
measurement, and analysis.
 An impactful research design usually:
 creates minimum bias in data
 increases trust on the collected and analyzed research
information.
Elements of Research Design
 Accurate purpose statement of research design
 Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for
research
 Method applied for analyzing collected details
 Type of research methodology
 Probable objections for research
 Settings for research study
 Timeline
 Measurement of analysis
 Types of Research Design
Can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative
research design

Quantitative Research Design:

◦ Conclusion is based on statistical analysis to collect actionable
insight.

◦ Widely used in business where conclusion is drawn based on

numbers.
 Types of Research Design
Qualitative Research Design:

◦ implemented in cases where a relationship between collected

data and observation is established on the basis of mathematical
calculations

◦ expected to conclude “why” a particular theory exists along

with “what” respondents have to say about it.
 Quantitative vs Qualitative
Quantitative: Qualitative:
◦ numerical analysis ◦ words
◦ structured data ◦ unstructured data
◦ objective conclusion ◦ subjective conclusion
◦ deductive ◦ inductive
◦ generalisable ◦ not generalisable
◦ Survey, questionnaire, ◦ Case study, observation,
experiment focus group, interview
Other Examples:
◦ Descriptive Research Design

◦ Experimental Research Design

◦ Correlational Research Design

◦ Diagnostic Research Design

◦ Explanatory Research Design

Positivistic and Phenomenological
Approaches

Positivistic Phenomenological

 Surveys  Case Studies

 Experimental Studies  Action Research
 Longitudinal Studies
 Cross-sectional Studies
 Positivistic Methodologies
Surveys
◦ There are two main types of survey
Descriptive survey
◦ concerned with identifying & counting the frequency of
a particular response among the survey group

Analytical survey
◦ to analyse the relationship between different elements
(variables) in a sample group.
 Positivistic Methodologies
Experimental Studies
Experimental studies are done in carefully controlled and
structured environments and enable the causal relationships of
phenomena to be identified and analysed.

◦ For example, sound, light, heat, volume of work levels etc.

can be managed to observe the effects
 Positivistic Methodologies

Longitudinal Studies

◦ Longitudinal studies are often conducted over several years

(duration is given)

◦ E.g. For government agencies, a duration of several years is

given (5 years) to closely analyse the outcome of a project
(RMK).
 Positivistic Methodologies

Cross-Sectional Studies

◦ This is a study involving different organisations or groups of

people to look at similarities or differences between them at any
one particular time

◦ e.g. a survey of the IT skills of managers in one or a number of

organisations at any particular time.
 Phenomenological Methodologies
Case Studies
◦ A case study offers an opportunity to study a particular subject

◦ e.g. one organisation, in depth, or a group of people, and

usually involves gathering and analysing information

Charity Fund Raising Final Year Project in Business and

Management Studies
 Phenomenological Methodologies

Action Research
◦ Action research involves an intervention by a researcher to
influence change in any given situation and to monitor and
evaluate the results.
◦ e.g. by introducing new techniques, and monitors the results
SAMPLING
 Sampling
◦ A population is the bigger target group of the study to which
the results of the research are applicable.

◦ A sample is a group of individuals who are involved as

respondents who provide the information, facts or opinions in a
research.
 Sample & Population

Target Population

Specific Population

Sample
 Example
◦ Issue of hand phone usage among students in a university

◦ Total students in the university 30, 000 represent the population

of the research.

◦ First and second year students may represent the specific

population.

◦ The selected students, for instance, 379 students who received

and returned the questionnaire represent the sample of the
research.
 Sample Size
Table for Determining Sample Size for a Finite Population (Krejcie & Morgan1970) 
 Types of Sampling
Probability Sampling
every member of the group has equal chance of being selected
(random)

Non-Probability Sampling
NOT every member of the group has equal chance of being
selected (research selects)
 Types of Sampling
Probability Sampling:
 Simple Random Sampling

 Stratified Sampling

 Cluster

Non-Probability Sampling:
 Systematic

 Convenience

 Purposive
 Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

◦ Samples are randomly selected.
◦ Every member has equal chance to be selected

The university administration wants to know how lecturers

feel about the operation and facilities of the new sports
complex.
Randomly picks 100 names from a list of lecturers’ name list.
 Probability Sampling

Stratified Sampling
◦ Samples selected in the same proportion (divided into
groups) as existence in the population.

The number of female students in an engineering faculty is

less than the number of male students.
In selecting the sample for research, the number of females
selected randomly must follow proportion of the population,
which is less than the number of male students
 Probability Sampling

Cluster Sampling
◦ Samples are randomly selected from different natural
geographical situation or boundaries.

In a study involving a school students, the students can be

selected from different streams or locations.
 Non-Probability Sampling

Systematic Sampling

◦ Every nth person in a population list is selected

In a research involving 2000 students in a faculty, the sample

would be selected based on every 7th name in the list.
 Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling
◦ The individuals who are readily accessible

A principal of a school asks a researcher to conduct a study on

the effectiveness of a new programme on two of the available
classes.
The researcher will choose the currently running classes to
easily conduct the research.
 Non-Probability Sampling

Purposive Sampling
◦ A group of sample selected specifically by the researcher
because they have the knowledge or experience in certain
issue.

In a research about the feelings of being the front liners

during the recent Covid-19 pandemic, a researcher selects the
sample by interviewing doctors, nurses, police officers and
cleaning staff.
DATA COLLECTION
 DATA COLLECTION
◦ Is a process of collecting data from different sources.
◦ Data are valuable pieces of information collected in a
study.

 Come from your own

Primary Data investigation
 Obtained through questionnaire,
Data interviews, observations, test or
experiments.

Secondary
Data  Come from reading what others
have experienced.
 Data Collection Method
◦ One-to-one interviews with key informants in an organization
(these might be face to face or by telephone)
◦ Focus groups: discussion & interviews
◦ Participant observation in a relevant social situation, e.g.
Supermarket
◦ A questionnaire survey, e.g. of relevant people in an
organization, or of consumers, customers etc. This can be done
using printed or electronic questionnaires.
 INSTRUMENTATION:
COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
Methods to collect primary data:

◦ Interview
◦ Focus Groups
◦ Questionnaire
◦ Observation
◦ Experiment
 INTERVIEWS
Structured
Structured interviews are rigidly standardized and follow a
list of previously prepared questions

Semi-structured
Interviewers ask some previously prepared questions as well
as unprepared questions based on the answers of the
interviewees

Unstructured
The interviewer and interviewee have more freedom to
express themselves.
 FOCUS GROUP
◦ Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the forms of
opinions, from a selected group of people on a particular and pre-
determined topic, e.g. consumer topic; political topic etc.
◦ The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some
way what is being said (e.g. by use of a tape-recorder, video,
note-taker etc).
◦ The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to
intervene if necessary to resolve group problems.
◦ Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main
issues and concerns of any group are.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
◦ Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data by asking all, or
a sample of people, to respond to the same questions.
◦ They can be in both printed and electronic forms.
◦ There are four types of questionnaire approaches:
On-line (electronic)
Postal (printed)
Delivery & collection (printed)
Telephone (electronic/printed)
DATA ANALYSIS
 Data Analysis
◦ The purpose of analysing data is to obtain usable and useful
information.
◦ The analysis, regardless of whether the data is qualitative or
quantitative, may:
describe and summarize the data.
identify relationships between variables.
compare variables.
identify the difference between variables.
forecast outcomes.