Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Announcement: - Grading Adjusted
Announcement: - Grading Adjusted
• Grading adjusted
– 10% participation and two exams 20% each
• Newsgroup up
• Assignment upload webpage up
• Homework 1 will be released over the weekend
Review
• What is security: history and definition
• Security policy, mechanisms and services
• Security models
Outline
• Overview of Cryptography
• Classical Symmetric Cipher
• Modern Symmetric Ciphers (DES)
Basic Terminology
• plaintext - the original message
• ciphertext - the coded message
• cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
• key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
• encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
• decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
• cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
• cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - the study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
• cryptology - the field of both cryptography and
cryptanalysis
Classification of Cryptography
• Number of keys used
– Hash functions: no key
– Secret key cryptography: one key
– Public key cryptography: two keys - public, private
• Type of encryption operations used
– substitution / transposition / product
• Way in which plaintext is processed
– block / stream
Secret Key vs. Secret Algorithm
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
n o p q r s t u v w x y Z
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
• Now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
• Is that secure?
• Problem is language characteristics
– Human languages are redundant
– Letters are not equally commonly used
English Letter Frequencies
Example Cryptanalysis
• Given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
• Giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
Product Ciphers
• Ciphers using substitutions or transpositions
are not secure because of language
characteristics
• Hence consider using several ciphers in
succession to make harder, but:
– Two substitutions make a more complex substitution
– Two transpositions make more complex transposition
– But a substitution followed by a transposition makes
a new much harder cipher
• This is bridge from classical to modern ciphers
Outline
• Overview of Cryptography
• Classical Symmetric Cipher
• Modern Symmetric Ciphers (DES)
Block vs Stream Ciphers
• Block ciphers process messages in into blocks,
each of which is then en/decrypted
• Like a substitution on very big characters
– 64-bits or more
• Stream ciphers process messages a bit or byte
at a time when en/decrypting
• Many current ciphers are block ciphers, one of
the most widely used types of cryptographic
algorithms
Block Cipher Principles
• Most symmetric block ciphers are based on a
Feistel Cipher Structure
• Block ciphers look like an extremely large
substitution
• Would need table of 264 entries for a 64-bit
block
• Instead create from smaller building blocks
• Using idea of a product cipher
Substitution-Permutation Ciphers
• Substitution-permutation (S-P) networks
[Shannon, 1949]
– modern substitution-transposition product cipher
• These form the basis of modern block ciphers
• S-P networks are based on the two primitive
cryptographic operations
– substitution (S-box)
– permutation (P-box)
• provide confusion and diffusion of message
Confusion and Diffusion
• Cipher needs to completely obscure statistical
properties of original message
• A one-time pad does this
• More practically Shannon suggested S-P networks
to obtain:
• Diffusion – dissipates statistical structure of
plaintext over bulk of ciphertext
• Confusion – makes relationship between
ciphertext and key as complex as possible
Feistel Cipher Structure
• Feistel cipher implements Shannon’s S-P
network concept
– based on invertible product cipher
• Process through multiple rounds which
– partitions input block into two halves
– perform a substitution on left data half
– based on round function of right half & subkey
– then have permutation swapping halves
Feistel
Cipher
Structure
DES (Data Encryption Standard)
• Published in 1977, standardized in 1979.
• Key: 64 bit quantity=8-bit parity+56-bit key
– Every 8th bit is a parity bit.
• 64 bit input, 64 bit output.
64 bit M 64 bit C
DES
Encryption
56 bits
DES Top View
56-bit Key
64-bit
48-bitInput
K1
Generate keys
Permutation Initial Permutation
48-bit K1
Round 1
48-bit K2
Round 2
…... 48-bit K16
Round 16
64-bit Output
Bit Permutation (1-to-1)
1 2 3 4 32
Input: 0 0 1 0 ……. 1
1 bit
Output 1 0 1 1 …….. 1
22 6 13 32 3
Per-Round Key Generation
Initial Permutation of DES key
E
One 48 bits
Mangler
Round Function 48 bits
Encryption S-Boxes Ki
32 bits
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
+ + + + + + + +
Permutation
Bits Expansion (1-to-m)
1 2 3 4 5 32
Input: 0 0 1 0 1……. 1
Output
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 …….. 1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 48
S-Box (Substitute and Shrink)
• 48 bits ==> 32 bits. (8*6 ==> 8*4)
• 2 bits used to select amongst 4 substitutions
for the rest of the 4-bit quantity
2 bits I1
row I2
I3 Si O1
O2
I4 O3
I5 O4
4 bits I6
column i = 1,…8.
S-Box Examples
Each row and column contain different numbers.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9…. 15
0 14 4 13 1 2 15 11 8 3
1 0 15 7 4 14 2 13 1 10
2 4 1 14 8 13 6 2 11 15
3 15 12 8 2 4 9 1 7 5