Physical

Geography
Ninth Edition

Chapter 13: Earth Structure, Earth

Materials, and Plate Tectonics

Robert E. Gabler
James. F. Petersen
L. Michael Trapasso
Dorothy Sack
• http://www.slideshare.net/lschmidt1170/13
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Earth Structure, Earth Materials, and
Plate Tectonics
 13.1 Earth’s Planetary Structure
• Earth’s radius is 6400 km
(4000 miles)
• Structure and
composition deduced by
remote sensing
– Seismic waves
– Seismograph
– P (primary) waves
– S (secondary) waves
 13.1 Earth’s Planetary Structure
• Seismic Waves
• Earth’s Internal Structure (crust, mantle, outer
core, inner core)
 13.1 Earth’s Planetary Structure
• Earth’s Core
– 1/3 of Earth’s mass
– Enormous pressure
– Iron and nickel
– Inner core: Solid
– Outer core: molten
lava
 13.1 Earth’s Planetary Structure
• Earth’s Mantle
– Largest of interior zones
– Solid rocky material
– Less dense than core
– Plastic solid
– Outermost layer
behaves like an elastic
solid (rigid)
– Lithosphere (upper
most mantle and crust)
 13.1 Earth’s Planetary Structure
• Earth’s Mantle
– Asthenosphere:
upper mantle
– Tectonic forces come
from movement of
Asthenosphere
– Moho discontinuity
 13.1 Earth’s Planetary Structure
• Earth’s Crust
– 1% of Earth’s mass
– Exterior of lithosphere
– Density
• Oceanic crust
(basaltic)
• Continental crust
(granitic)
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Minerals
– Building blocks of rocks
– Inorganic
– Naturally occurring
• Rock
– Aggregate (collection) of
minerals or an aggregate
of the same mineral
• Most Common Elements
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Minerals
– Distinct and recognizable
characteristics
• Hardness
• Luster
• Cleavage
• Tendency to fracture
• Specific gravity
• Geometric shapes
– Chemical Composition
• Silicon, oxygen, and carbon
• Silicates
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Rocks
– Building material
– Weathered and eroded
– Bedrock
– Regolith
– Outcrop
– 3 Major Categories of Rocks
• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Igneous Rocks
– Molten rock material cools
and solidifies
– Magma (below surface)
– Lava (at surface)
– 2 Major categories of
Igneous:
• Extrusive
• Intrusive
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Extrusive
– Extrusive igneous rock
(volcanic rock): solidifies at
surface
– Pyroclastics (fine
fragments)
• Intrusive
– Intrusive igneous rock:
molten magma solidifies
(freezes)
– Also called plutonic rock
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Chemical Composition
of Igneous
– Felsic, Mafic, Dionite,
Andesite
• Extrusive:
– Basalt, Andesite,
Rhyolite
• Intrusive:
– Gabbro, Diorite,
Granite
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Geometric patterns
– Columnar joints
– Devil’s Postpile, CA and Devil's Tower, WY
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
– Accumulated
sediment
– Unconsolidated,
minerals that have
been eroded,
transported and
deposited
– Clasts
– Clastic
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
– Organic sedimentary
• Coal
• Limestone
– Chemical sedimentary
rocks
• Dolomite
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
– Stratification
– Strata
– Bedding planes
– Unconformity
– Cross bedding
– Fins
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks
– Changed form due to
enormous heat and
pressure
– Harder
– Foliation
– Two major Types:
• Foliated (presence of
platy or wavy surfaces)
• Nonfoliated (absence of
platy or wavy surfaces)
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Metamorphic
Rocks
– Schist
– Gneiss
– Marble
 13.2 Minerals and Rocks
• Rock Cycle
Q: What conditions are necessary to change igneous to
metamorphic?
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Continental Drift
• Plate Tectonics
• Catastrophism
• Uniformitarian
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Continental Drift
– Idea that continents and
other landmasses have
shifted
– Wegener
– Pangaea
• Gondwana
• Laurasia

Q: How has continental

movement affected the
climates of landmasses?
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Supporting Evidence
for Continental Drift
– Radioactive dating
– Paleomagnetism
• Reconstructed locations
of continents
• 200 mya continents
joined together
– Similar fossil reptiles
and plants
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Supporting Evidence
for Continental Drift
– Glaciation
– Rocks of ancient
mountain ranges
• Paleogeographic
reconstruction
 13.4 Plate Tectonics
• Plate Tectonics
– Modern theory to explain
movement of continents
– Lithosphere is broken
– Plates move in distinct
and discrete units
– Plates Diverge, converge,
or move laterally
– 7 major plates
 13.4 Plate Tectonics
• Plate Tectonics
Q: Does every lithospheric plate include a continent?
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Seafloor Spreading and
Convection Currents
– Undersea mapping
– Mid-ocean ridges
– Parallel bands of matching
magnetic patterns
– Rocks on ocean floor very
young!
– Oldest rocks lie next to
continents
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Seafloor Spreading and Convection Currents
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Seafloor Spreading
– Polarity reversals
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Seafloor
Spreading
– Convection

Q: Why is plate
tectonics a better
name than
continental drift for
the lateral
movement of
Earth’s solid outer
shell?
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Tectonic Plate Movement
– Pulling apart, pushing together, or sliding alongside
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Plate Divergence
(pulling apart)
– Seafloor spreading
– Shallow earthquakes
– Creates new ridges
– Most occur near
oceanic ridges (e.g.
Iceland)
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Plate Divergence
(pulling apart)
– Rift Valley, Africa
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Plate Convergence
(pushing together)
– Denser plate forced
under lighter plate
– This is known as
subduction
– Examples:
• Nazca Plate subducts
beneath South
America
• Japan
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Plate Convergence
– Deep ocean trenches
– Mountain ranges
(ocean-continent)
• Cascades
• Andes
– Islands (ocean-ocean)
• Aleutians
• Kuriles
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Plate Convergence
– Larger Landmasses
(continent-continent)
– Continental Collision
• Himalayas
• Tibetan Plateau
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Transform Movement
– Plates slide pass each
other
– Examples
• San Andreas Fault, CA
• Ocean plates
13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search
for a Unifying Theory
• Hot Spots
– Almost stationary molten masses that rise to
surface
– Hawaiian Islands
 13.4 Growth of Continents
• Origin of continents
still debated
– Continental shields
(ancient crystalline
rock)
– Example: Canadian
Shield
– Accretion
– Microplate terranes
13.4 Growth of Continents
 13.5 Paleogeography
• Paleogeography
– Reconstruct the past
environment of a
geographical region
based on geologic
and climate evidence
– Earth History
• Eras
• Periods
• Epochs
 13.5 Paleogeography
Q: How has the environment at the location where
you live changes through geologic time?
 Physical Geography

End of Chapter 13: Earth Structure,

Earth Materials, and Plate Tectonics