Analog-to-

digital
converter
I.
[mA]
Coding:
Binary
sequence
20 Inter Code
111 - -
th
vall wor
18 110
d
th 101
1 000
16 100
14 2 000
011
th 010 3 010
12 001 4th 011
10 000 5 100
8t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20th
h t [ms] 6th 101
Sampling interval
6t 7th 110
h Quantization of the Time:
8th 110
4t E.g .: time is in 1 ms intervals assigned
h 9 110
Quantization of the Readings:
E.g .: digital signal based on 2 mA levels 3 Bit  
coding  23 = 8 values
Analog and Digital
signals: example
Digital signal based on 4th mA levels 2 Bit
coding  22 = 4 values
I.
[mA]
20
th 11
18
th
10
16
14
th 01

12
10 00

8t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20th
h t
Sampling interval
6t
h
4t
h
Analog and Digital
signals: example
Digital signal based on 2 mA levels 3 Bit
coding  23 = 8 values
I.
[mA]
20
th 111

18 110
th 101
16 100
14 011
th 010
12 001
10 000
8t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20th
h T [ms]
Sampling interval
6t
h
4t
h
Analog and Digital
signals: example
Digital signal based on 1 mA levels 4th Bit
coding  24th = 16 values
I.
[mA]
20 1111
th 1110
1101
18 1100
1011
th 1010
1001
16 1000
0111
14 0110
th 0101
0100
12 0011
0010
10 0001
0000
8t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20th
h t
Sampling interval
6t
hThe more levels used, the higher the resolution
4t
4th Bit: 24th = 16 values
h
12 bit: 212 = 4096 values
16 bit: 216 = 65536 values
Important Measurands
and Measurement
principles
 The following slides describe important online measurands for bioprocesses
 All the measured variables presented provide an electrical output variable
signal
 Probes that in The bioreactor to be built in must be sterilizable be.
 There is no claim to completeness here posed.
Requirements for
Sensors
 Use of qualified, physiologically
harmless materials
 Avoidance of slots, corners, holes,
dead spaces
 Use of electropolished materials
 Easy to clean
 Sterilizable
 Use of self-draining constructions

Source: Ingenieurbüro Hofmann, Hygienic Design,

Freising
Temperature
measuremen
t increase of approx.
• Most pure metals show a Resistance
4th Per mille per K.
• They are called according to that positive
temperature Coefficients: PTC
Resistances.
• Mainly nickel and platinum will be as
Temperature sensors used:
PT100, PT 1000, NI 5000 are Platinum, or
nickel sensors (the number Are defined
the el.
Resistance at 0 ° C).
• The NTC resistors (with negative
temperature Coefficient) are
Semiconductor materials.
Characteristi
c PT 100 PT 100 Characteristic
4th
50

4th
00
PT 100 Resistance value

350

300

250

200

150
(Ohm)

100

50

-200 0 200 400 6th 8th

00 00
0
temperature (°
C)
Pressure
measurement:
Examples
• Piezoresistive silicon cells
 piezoresistive effect describes the change in the electrical Resistance of a
material by mechanical Powers
 The pressure difference p1 Piezoresistor
leads to the expansion
of the bending plate and
the piezo resistors. The silicon
resistance will
measured. p2
Bending
• Capacitive
 DistanceMeasurement
change between 2 Capacitor plates due to a pressureplate
difference leads
to a change in the capacitance of the Capacitor
s·Æ
Plate capacitor: C. = d
• Advantages:
 inexpensive, high sensitivity
• Disadvantage:
 strong temperature dependence

www.endress.com
62
Fill level or fill quantity in
one
a) container
Filling quantity measurement using a scale (gravimetric)
• Container stands on one Libra
• Accuracy of a scale: 0.05 to 0.1% of the Total weight
• Advantages:
 easy method
• Disadvantage:
 for small containers only applicable
 Connection lines interfere with the measurement signal
 relatively expensive if high accuracy is required is
• E.g.: VR.= 150 L; mR.= 500 kg
 total weight 650 kg
 e.g. scales with a measuring range up to 1000 kg
 Measuring accuracy approx.  1 kg

63
 measurement based on a
differential pressure
measurement
• Accuracy approx.  6mm
• Advantages:
 regardless of the gas content of
the liquid
 also for large containers
applicable
• Disadvantage:
 Pressure fluctuations in the boiler
(e.g. due to the gas supply) influence
the measurement
 Dependence on the density

Measurement, regulation and automation Source: M. Krahe: Biochemical Engineering. In: Ullmann's encyclopediaof
© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen Industrial Chemistry. SixthEdition. Weinheim (D), 2002. 64
 c) Capacitive Level
•measurement
With capacitive level measurement
becomes changing the electrical
capacitance between the electrodes
detected, when these are surrounded by a
medium.
• This change depends on the dielectric
constant ε of the medium from.
• Cup-shaped capacitor
• Use of the Stray field
• Advantage:
 non-contact Measurement
• Disadvantage:
 only for containers without Metal wall
 unsuitable for measuring the filling
quantity in bioreactors (due to gas
content, Foam)
Measurement, regulation and automation
© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
www.baumerelectric.com 65
 d) Ultrasonic level
•measurement
The measurement with Ultrasonic based on
a runtime measurement.
• The ones sent out by a sensor ultrasonic Pulses
are generated from the surface of the medium
reflected and again from the sensor detected. The
required running time is a measure of the distance
covered in the empty Container part.
• This sonar method is one contactless and
maintenance-free measurement without
Influencing through product properties such as
Example dielectric constant, conductivity, Density
or Humidity.
• Alternative: Radar sensor

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen www.wikipedia.de 66
Foam
probe

Winfried Storhas: Bioreactors and peripheral facilities, Jumper, 1994

 Flow measurement:
•a) Rotameter
Advantages:
 for gases and liquids suitable
 inexpensive execution with moderate Claims
 simple function
 Interchangeability (DIN)
 Easy construction
 Overload capacity
• Disadvantage:
 depending on the physical properties of the
medium: density, viscosity, temperature
 There is hardly any wear and tear detectable
 low accuracy
 none online ability
Aalborg Inc.
 b) Flow measurement for gases
and liquids: Thermal Mass flow
measurement
 Part of the Gas flows through the sensor,
which passes through the heating
element H warmed up becomes.
 This results with increasing mass flow a
Temperature difference between T1 and
T2
 very accurate measurement though
relative expensive
 often combined with one Flow
regulator (Mass flow Controller)

M. Farzaneh-Gord et al. J. Nat.Gas Sc Closely. 22nd (2015)

T1 H T2 540-550

www.voegtlin.com
c) Flow measurement for liquids:
Differential pressure
• From the pressure difference of the
p1
Flow determine. p2
• Continuity equation: A. w2
F. = A.
1 1· 2W
2 = A. ·
A.1 w1
2
W
• Advantages: From the Bernoulli's law follows:
qw1 2 qw 2
 easy to use e.1 + q. G H + .2 = e 2 + qgh + 22
 wide area of a
​ pplication more
static
more more
dy nam ic
hydro static
pressure qpressure
• Disadvantage: 2
w22 -w 12 pressure
= e 1 -e 2 = Δe
2
 Pressure loss through A. w 2 -w 2 = 2 ·
1 1 Δeq
Narrowing 1

 Dependence on the density A. 2 ·

w1 = Δe
2 q A. 1 ⁄ A. 2 2 -1

F . = 1A. 2 · Δe
· q A. 1 ⁄ A. 2 2 -1
Flow measurement at
Liquids:
d) Magnetically inductive Flow sensor
• Faraday's law of induction: In a leader who in a magnetic field moves a voltage
induced.
• With the magnetic-inductive measuring
principle, the flowing medium
corresponds to the moving conductor.
• The magnetic field is generated by two
magnetic coils on both sides of the measuring
tube. There are two perpendicular to this on
the inner wall of the pipe Measuring
electrodes,
which is the voltage generated when the
medium flows through it tap.
• The induced voltage is proportional to the
flow rate and thus to the Volume flow.
www.krohne.com
• Advantages:
 regardless of physical Properties of the Medium
 no Change in cross-section
U = k · B. · d ·
 no Pressure drop
 no moved mech. Parts wU tension
k constant
• Disadvantage: B. Magnetic field
 needed Minimum conductivity d Pipe diameter
 on watery solutions limited w Flow velocity
 e) Flow measurement at
Liquids: Coriolis mass
•flow measurement
• The elbow will in Offset
Without flow: The two legs of the pipe bend
swing the same without a time difference.
• With flow:The two legs no longer move in the
same way due to the Coriolis force acting on
the particles. The time difference depends on www.wikipedia.de
the oscillation frequency, the mass of the
medium and itsFlow velocity from. Thus this
procedure isin able to directly control the mass
flow measure up.
• Advantages:
 independent of Density, viscosity and
Flow profile
 very height accuracy
• Disadvantage:
 height costs

Measurement, regulation and automation www.endress.com

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen 72
 conduct
ivity
• There are two in the medium Electrodes,
to the one alternating voltage is created.
• This creates a current flow in the
medium generated.
• According to Ohm's law, the electric
Resistance or its reciprocal value, the
conductance G, calculated.
• The conductance becomes dependent of
the Sensor geometry the specific
conductivity determined.

Measurement, regulation and automation www.endress.com

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen 73
 pH value: how the pH
•electrode
The heart of a pH electrode is a
Glass membrane from one special
pH selective Glass
• This glass responds With humidity or
water and forms on the surface a wafer-
thin, invisible water-containing swelling
layer.
• This gel or swelling layer is pH selective
and occurs with the H+-Ions of the
measurement solution in Interaction and
can be used as selective barrier considered
be: only H+-Ions get into the Source layer,
all other ions Not.

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 How the pH
electrode
V
Measuring Reference
electrode electrode

KCl (3M)
Measureme
nt solution

Ag / AgCl
silver (Ag)

Glass
Diaphragm
membrane
++ + (electrical Contact to
- - - -- Measurement
solution)

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
pH
combination
electrode

Source: Mettler Toledo

Source: H. Chmiel: Bioprocess engineering. 3.
Edition. Academic spectrum Publishing
company, Munich 2011

78
pH
retractable
fitting

http://de.mt.com
79
Dissolved oxygen
concentration: a) pO -Electrode
DC voltage 0.4-
0.8 V
2

- +

A.
cathode anode

Pt Ag/
AgCl

K+

-
Cl
4e -

4th
OH-

+ 2H 2 0

diffusion Mettler Toldeo

O2 Oxygen-permeable membrane

83
Oxygen
measurement:
Polarogram

Source: H. Chmiel: Bioprocess engineering. 3. Edition. Academic spectrum Publishing company,

Munich 2011

84
 Oxygen electrode
polarographic
• Probe must be 1-2 H polarized
principle
will be until they operational is
• Membrane is relative sensitive

Source: H. Chmiel: Bioprocess engineering. 3. Edition. Academic spectrum Publishing company,

Munich 2011

85
 Dissolved oxygen concentration:
• b) optical
The optical method
method is based on the
luminescence radiation of a phosphor
(luminophore) and leads the measurement
of the oxygen concentration on a pure
physical measurement of the time back.
• A luminophore is a substance that
glows after it has previously been Source: Hamilton

irradiated with shorter-wave light has

been.
• With a suitable choice of luminophore and
wavelength of the exciting light, both the
intensity as well as the time decay behavior
of the luminescent radiation depends on the
oxygen concentration in the material
surrounds.
• Advantages:
 does not need Electrolyte
 probe is
immediately
ready for use
Source: PreSens GmbH Source: Hach-Lange GmbH

86
 Impedance
measureme
nt

• Online determination of live

biomass in one Bioreactor
• Cells with more intact Plasma
membrane behave like small
Capacitors in one alternating electric
field
• resulting Capacity will measured
Measurement, regulation and automation Source: But Instruments
© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen 87
Optical online Measurement
methods:
a) fluorometer

Source: H. Chmiel: Bioprocess engineering. 3. Edition. Academic spectrum Publishing company,

Munich 2011

88
 Measurement
b) online determination of the Biomass: Turbidity
methods:
measurement
sterilizable 1-channel NIR absorption probe

optek-Danulat GmbH

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 Measurement
c) near infrared spectroscopy

•
methods:
(NIR)
evaluation the
In situ sterilizable
process-
performance
• 800 ... 2500
nm
• Energy absorption
through chemical
bonds
• determination of Temperature
the Glucose M. ,
pH, pO2
concentration and pressure

another
Substances NIR Product
• Problem: Spectroscopy

detection limit
Source: University Hanover
glucose approx.
1 g / regulation
Measurement, l and automation
© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 d) Mid-infrared
spectroscopy (ME)
• AquaSpec Technology enables quantitative
TM
MIR analyzer
Transmission measurements of aqueous
samples in MIR area
 Fully automated analyzer systems for the
Surveying the rehearse
 Minor Detection limits to to 1ppm
 No Sample preparation required
 Measurement result is within from approx. 2
Minutes after sampling in front
 With help the IR spectra and a multivariate Data
evaluation can within a single Measurement a
multitude of information from the sample
generated become (Concentrations from
Mixed and
Substrates and By-products)
dosing
 DOSIM Algorithm allows quantitative analysis module Multi-
of substances in Mixtures without calibration bioreactor
system

Source: micro-biolytics GmbH and HS Esslingen

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 Results: Comparison of MIR analysis with Reference
analytics
E. coli High cell density
cultivation

Source: micro-biolytics GmbH and HS Esslingen

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 Results: Additional
E. coli High cell density
cultivation
Information out of the
MIR analytics

Source: micro-biolytics GmbH and HS Esslingen

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 Enzymatic On-line
Measurement: glucose Analyzer

sterilizable
microfiltration probe
to sampling

TRACE Analytics GmbH

Measurement, regulation and automation

© Richard Biener • HS Esslingen
 4-Discontinuous or switching controllers: Ex. Two-point controller

Characteristic curve of a two-point

controller with hysteresis
y

heater on

heater out

E.g.: Temperature control in one room

 Heating will turned on
 Heating will switched off
5. Continuous controller: P controller ex. Temperature control
 5. Continuous controller: The PID controller (most important Controller)

scenario: sudden change in Control deviation

e Proportional controller (P):

The strength of the reaction is
proportional to the control
t deviation
y y • Integral regulator (I): The
strength of the reaction increases
PI
P with the duration of the deviation
of the controlled variable
Step responses

t t
(summation).
y y
• Differential controller (D): The
I PD speed the change is crucial.
.
t t
PID
y y
controller:
D PID
.
t t
Mode of action one PID controller

• P component: “The greater the control deviation e the larger the

manipulated variable y".
• I part: “The longer a control deviation e occurs, the stronger attacks the
regulation a."
 This can cause system deviations finally completely be eliminated.
• D component: “The greater the control deviation e changed, all the more
stronger the regulation a."
 So he can early a control deviation counteract

• Controller parameters that are specified when the controller is

designed have to:
 Kp : Controller gain factor
 TN : Reset time
 TV : Retention time
Dynamic control behavior more important Regulator

P controller He swings the Controlled variable on one new Persistence a, leaves

behind but a permanent one Control deviation.
I controller He tends to the Overshoot. Therefore regulates he exactly, needs
however a very long time to.
Of the P component improved the I controller properties by shorter On-
PI controller and Settling times or. smaller ones Overshoots.

PD controller Der D.-A.nteil fuhrt den ÜberGanG in kürzerer Zeggt aus, die
Control deviation remains but receive.
Of the PID controller responds yet more quickly as the PI controller. The
Ruled surface is very small. AllController with D component can to one
PID controller troubled Control behavior to lead. Is the Sensor signal noisy, so
becomes this Noise by the Differentiation in the Control loop further
reinforced.

103
Dynamic leadership behavior is more important Regulator

8
8th
x (t) PPIID
D ccoonnttrroolllleerr I controller
I c on tro l l er
7th
7
P I c o n t ro l l e r
PI controller
6th
6

5 W (t)
5

4 Stationary
W . (t) R . e g e lG üt
P c o n t ro l l e r e
3
4th S . tatiO nextre
R . e g e lG üte
2 P c o n t ro l l e r
3
PD controller
1
2
PD controller
0
10 2 4 6 8 10
time
Dynamic fault behavior more important Regulator

3
x(t)
x (t ) Without Regulator
2.5
I co n t r o lle r
2
2 I co n t r o lle r

1.5 P -c o n t r o l l e r
1.5 P controller
1
1 PD- controller Stationary
R . e g e lG üt
P D . 0.5
-R . e G le r S . tatiO nextre
e
0 .5 R . e g e lG üte
0 W . (t)

0
-0.5
PID controller
-1 P I cont roller
W . (t)

-1.5
-0.50 2 4 6 8 10
PID controller Z eit
-1 PI controller

-1 . 5
 Analog and digital Regulator

• Digital realization of the Regulator

 A / D and D / A converter to processing of the input and output signals
(Amplitude quantization and Time discretization)
 Algorithmic description of the controller
 Realization
• Standard PC
• SPS
• Process control system
• Analog implementation of the Regulator
 use analog components such as resistors, capacitors and operational
amplifiers
 Information processing in Real time
e.g : digital Temperature control

x'
y

A/D THERE
Converter Converter

w
Reichwein, Hochheimer, Simic: Measure, rule and Taxes, Wiley-VCH, 2007
6. Transfer behavior of Controlled systems

z
(t )
w(t ) + y Process
x(t
Regulator
e(t ) (t ) )
_

 Of the Draft regulator is essentially dependent on dynamic behavior or.

Transfer behavior of the Controlled system influenced.
 The Transfer behavior is made using the Step response characterized
 in the The block diagram is often the step response of the block drawn

110
6. Transfer behavior of Controlled systems

y (t) y x x (t)
Route

t t
Input size y
(Root Output variable x
cause) (Effect)

• Temporal behavior the output variable when there is a change of the

Input variable
• E.g.: How changes the temperature (= Initial size) in one Container, when the
heating (= input variable) is switched on becomes?
• Step response: behavior the output size after a abrupt Change of Input variable
Route with and without compensation
 stretch with compensation strive for a sudden change in the input
variable to a new stationary end value to.

y (t) y x x (t)
Route

t t

 stretch without compensation reach no new one State of equilibrium.

y (t) y x x (t)
Route

t t
Characterization of linear systems by Step response
Step response: behavior the output variable after a
sudden change in Input variable
A linear System is clearly characterized by the
Step response q(t) (also: Transition function):

h (t) y = h (t) x = q (t) q (t)

Route

t t
Output
Input size y
variable x
When is a system linear?
• 2 Conditions:
 Reinforcement principle must be fulfilled:

y (t ) x(t ) c y (t) c x (t)

route route

 The superposition principle must be fulfilled:

y 1 (t) x 1 (t)
route
y 1 (t) + y 2 (t) x 1 (t) + x 2 (t)
route
y 2 (t) x 2 (t)
route
Linear transmission links: P link (Proportional term)

• Controlled variable x changes proportional with the manipulated variable y.

• There follows the controlled variable of the manipulated variable without
the smallest Delay.
• Of the Proportionality factor is called Kp abbreviated and
frequent as Route reinforcement designated.
• Is Kp smaller as one, it is not reinforcing, but rather weakening.
• Because every transfer of energy takes a finite time needed comes the
pure proportional Behavior in practice only approximately in front.
Example for P element: Flow control

Flow x

Valve position y
y
Step response of a P element
• P element is a segment with compensation
PT1-Link: delay first order
• If the input variable changes suddenly, it changes the Output variable delayed
• PT1-Link is a stretch with compensation

Time constant T1 is the Time,

up to which 63% of the final
value is reached become
 Example of a PT1-Element:
Temperature in one container
• In one ideally mixed containers are located n 0 kg water With one
temperature from T0.
• With a pump is in this container water With a mass flow of n˙ metered in
and with a second pump same Mass flow n˙ taken. The spec.
• Heat capacity c p is constant. How changes the
• temperature T in the container with the Time?
• solution With of the Energy balance:
Solution of the DGL for a PT1-Element
With

• Homogeneous DGL: kx Ma

x
 Characteristic Equation:

 Solution of the homogeneous DGL:

• Particulate DGL:
 Solution approach:
 Inserted into the DGL results in: x0
• Total solution: T1
 Deploy of the Initial condition:
 Identification of routes first and higher order
Delay element 1. Order: PT1 Step responses For y = c = 1 and x 0 = 0:
element
KP · C

PT1
PT4

q (t)
Delay element 2. Order: PT2
element 1
PT3
PT2

PTn element: 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Delay time (comparable

With Dead time) becomes larger
with increasing order
Routes second and higher order are vibratory
 Practical example for PTn-Element: heated reactor
I TH
.
Measured PT1
temperature t t
TH TH TB.
TMess
PT1
t t

TB.
TB. I TMess
. PT1
t t
thermometer
with insulated
protective tube I
TMess
.
 PTn-Link results from a series PT3
connection of PT1- Outlines t t
I-link (Integration): Ex. Level
I-element (route without Compensation)
Route with Dead time

• Conveyor belt
• shower
Route with Dead time Tt

Tt

Tt