Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences

5th Edition Yunus A. Çengel

THE SECOND LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
 Objectives
• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.

• Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible

processes, heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the
second law of thermodynamics.
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic
devices.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.

• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines,

refrigerators, and heat pumps.

2
7-1 INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW

Transferring
heat to a
paddle wheel
will not cause
it to rotate.

A cup of hot coffee does not

get hotter in a cooler room.
These processes
Transferring cannot occur
heat to a wire even though they
will not are not in violation
generate
of the first law.
electricity.
3
7-1 INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW
• It is clear from these arguments that processes proceed in a certain
direction and not in the reverse direction.
• The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, but
satisfying the first law does not ensure that the process can actually
occur.
• This inadequacy of the first law to identify whether a process can
take place is remedied by introducing another general principle, the
second law of thermodynamics.

Processes occur in a
certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.

A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed.
4
 7-2 THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A source
supplies
energy in the
form of heat,
Bodies with relatively large thermal
and a sink
masses can be modeled as thermal
absorbs it.
energy reservoirs.
• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity
(mass x specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat
without undergoing any change in temperature.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and
rivers as well as the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately
as thermal energy reservoirs because of their large thermal energy
storage capabilities or thermal masses. 5
 7-2 THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS
A body does not actually have to be very large to be
considered a reservoir.
Any physical body whose thermal energy capacity is
large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or
absorbs can be modeled as one.

For Example:
The air in a room, for example, can be treated
as a reservoir in the analysis of the heat dissipation
from a TV set in the room, since the amount of heat
transfer from the TV set to the room air is not large
enough to have a noticeable effect on the room air
temperature. 6
7-3 HEAT ENGINES
Mechanical work done by the shaft shown in
Figure is first converted to the internal energy
of the water. This energy may then leave the
water as heat.

From experience that any attempt to reverse

this process will fail. That is, transferring heat
to the water does not cause the shaft to rotate.

From this and other observations, we conclude

that work can be converted to heat directly and
completely, but converting heat to work
requires the use of some special devices.
These devices are called heat engines.
7
7-1 INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW

8
 7-3 HEAT ENGINES
The devices that convert
heat to work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
Work can always oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
be converted to 2. They convert part of this heat to
heat directly and work (usually in the form of a
completely, but the rotating shaft.)
reverse is not true.
3. They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic devices
Part of the heat
usually involve a fluid to and from
received by a heat
engine is converted to
which heat is transferred while
work, while the rest is undergoing a cycle. This fluid is
rejected to a sink. called the working fluid.
9
7-3 HEAT ENGINES

10
A steam power plant

A portion of the work output of

a heat engine is consumed
internally to maintain
continuous operation.

11
Thermal efficiency

Schematic of
a heat engine.

Some heat engines perform better

than others (convert more of the Even the most
heat they receive to work). efficient heat
engines reject
almost one-half
of the energy
they receive as
waste heat.
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13
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device
that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid A heat engine that violates the
must exchange heat with the Kelvin–Planck statement of the
environment as well as the furnace. second law.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to friction
or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.

14
REFRIGERATORS
In a household refrigerator, the
freezer compartment where
heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant serves as the
evaporator, and the coils
usually behind the refrigerator
where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air serve as the
condenser.
• This heat transfer process occurs in nature without
requiring any devices. The reverse process, however,
cannot occur by itself.
• The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature one requires special devices called
refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat engines, are cyclic devices. The
most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor
compression refrigeration cycle.
1. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a vapor and is
compressed to the condenser pressure.
2. It leaves the compressor at a relatively high
temperature and cools down and condenses as it flows
through the coils of the condenser by rejecting heat to
the surrounding medium.
3. It then enters a capillary tube where its pressure and
temperature drop drastically due to the throttling effect.
4. The low-temperature refrigerant then enters the
evaporator, where it evaporates by absorbing heat from
the refrigerated space. The cycle is completed as the
refrigerant leaves the evaporator and reenters the
compressor.
15
 HEAT PUMPS
• Device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high temperature one is the heat pump.

• Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle, but

differ in their objectives.

• The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated

space at a low temperature by removing heat from it.

• The objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a heated

space at a high temperature.

• This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low

temperature source, such as outside air, and supplying this
heat to the high-temperature medium such as a house. 16
When installed backward, an
air conditioner functions as a
heat pump.

17
 The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms
of the coefficient of performance (COP).

• Most heat pumps in operation today have a seasonally averaged COP

of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air as the heat source
in winter (air-source HP).
• In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably when temperatures
are below the freezing point.
• In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP that use the ground as
the heat source can be used.
• Such heat pumps are more expensive to install, but they are also
more efficient.
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators whose refrigerated space
is a room or a building instead of the food compartment.
• The COP of a refrigerator decreases with decreasing refrigeration
temperature.

18
The objective of a
refrigerator is to
Coefficient of Performance
remove QL from the (Refrigerator)
cooled space.
The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed
in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

19
 Coefficient of Performance
(Heat Pumps)

The objective
of a heat
pump is to
supply heat
QH into the
warmer space.
The work supplied
to a heat pump is
used to extract
energy from the
cold outdoors and
carry it into the
warm indoors.

for fixed values of QL and QH

20
21
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics: Clasius Statement

It is impossible to construct a device that

operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless

its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor.

This way, the net effect on the surroundings

involves the consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the transfer of heat
A refrigerator that violates
from a colder body to a warmer one.
the Clausius statement of
the second law.
22
23
24
A house that was heated by electric resistance heaters consumed 1200
kWh of electric energy in a winter month. If this house were heated
instead by a heat pump that has an average COP of 2.4, determine how
much money the home owner would have saved that month. Assume a
price of 8.5cents/kWh for electricity.
The amount of heat the resistance heaters used = to he amount of heat it
supplied to the house

.
Wnet, = Q H / COPHP 

1200kWh/2.4 = 500kWh  500*8.5 = 4250/100= 42.5$

By using electric heater = 1200* 8.5 = 10200 cents = 102$

Saved = 102-42.5= 59.5$

7-5 THE CARNOT CYCLE

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH26)
 7-5 THE CARNOT CYCLE
Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)

• On a PV diagram the area under

the process curve represents the
boundary work

• Area under curve 1-2-3 is the

work done by the gas during the
expansion part of the cycle

• Area under curve 3-4-1 is the

work done on the gas during the
compression part of the cycle.
P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle.
27
 Condenser
(Isothermal Comp)

Throttling/
Adiabatic Exp)
Compressor
(Adiabatic Comp)

Evaporator
(Isothermal Exp)

P-V diagram of the reversed

Carnot cycle.

The Reversed
Reversible Carnot
Adiabatic Expansion Cycle1-2, temperature decrease from TH to TL)
(process
Reversible Isothermal
The Carnot Expansion
heat-engine (process
cycle 2-3, TLreversible
is a totally = constant)cycle.
Reversible Adiabatic
Therefore, Compression
all the processes(process 3-4, temperature
that comprise it can be increase
reversed,from TL to TH)
in which
case it Isothermal
Reversible becomes Compression
the Carnot refrigeration
(process 4-1, Tcycle.
H = constant)

28
 T-S diagram
Entropy, the measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that
is unavailable for doing useful work.

1. T–s diagram, is used in

Critical point is the point at which the phase
thermodynamics to boundary between liquid and gas terminates. In
visualize changes to water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K
(374 °C) and 22.064 MPa (218 atm).
temperature and
entropy
2. Helps to visualize the
heat transfer during a
process.
3. For reversible (ideal)
processes, the area
under the T–S curve is
the heat transferred to (J/K)

the system 29
 P-V Diagram and T-S diagram

P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle.

30
P-V Diagram and T-S diagram

31
7-5 THE CARNOT CYCLE T-S Diagram

32
 Deficiency of CARNOT CYCLE for vapour
We are adding heat to keep our
steam pressure maintained, by
adding heat, entropy is increasing
Cycle describes the different type of
processes involved and change in
thermodynamic properties of vapour as
o, heat interaction, no No heat interaction, so
entropy change, no entropy change,
it passes through the cycle.
isentropic s is constant
Four processes are different from each
other and require equipment’s:

4-1: can be made by a boiler

special
1-2: can be obtained by expanding
vapour via turbine

Heat is being released, 2-3: condenser to convert semi-vapours

so decrease in entropy
into liquid

3-4: require a pump to send back liquid

into boiler 33
Deficiency of CARNOT CYCLE for vapour

34
 7-7 THE RANKINE CYCLE WITH SUPERHEAT
• The efficiency of the steam turbine
will be limited by water-droplet
formation.
• As the water condenses, water
droplets hit the turbine blades at
high speed, causing pitting and
erosion,
• To overcome this problem is by
superheating the steam.
• On the T–s diagram above, state 3
is at a border of the two-phase
region of steam and water, so after
expansion the steam will be very
wet. 1-2 Isentropic compression
• By superheating, state 3 will move 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
to the right (and up) in the diagram 3-4 Isentropic expansion
and hence produce a drier steam 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
after expansion. 35
 7-8 THE RANKINE CYCLE WITH RE-HEAT

• The purpose of a reheating cycle is to

remove the moisture carried by the
steam at the final stages of the
expansion process.
• In this variation, two turbines work in
series. The first accepts vapor from
the boiler at high pressure. After the
vapor has passed through the first
turbine, it re-enters the boiler and is
reheated before passing through a
second, lower-pressure, turbine.
• Advantages of reheat is that it
prevents the vapor
from condensing during its expansion
and thereby reducing the damage in
the turbine blades, and improves the
efficiency of the cycle, 36
 7-8 Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine
Cycle
steady-flow energy equation for open system

The kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative to the
work and heat transfer terms.
So, steady-flow energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to:

Then the conservation of energy relation for each device

Pump (q = 0): wpump, in = h2 - h1

Boiler (w = 0): qin = h 3 - h2

Turbine (q = 0): wturb,out = h3 - h4

37
Condenser (w = 0): qout = h4 - h1
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined
from:

38
Example:
Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal
Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350C and is
condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the
thermal efficiency of this cycle, also calculate its back work ratio?
h1= 384.39 kJ/kg h2= 387.42 kJ/kg h3= 3115.3 kJ/kg h4=2402.6 kJ/kg
Pump (q = 0): wpump, in = h2 - h1 = 3.03

Boiler (w = 0): qin = h3 - h2 = 2727.88

Turbine (q = 0): wturb,out = h3 - h4 = 712.7
Condenser (w = 0): qout = h4 - h1 = 2018.21
= 712.7-3.03 or 2727.9-2018.2

39
 •A simple ideal Rankine cycle which uses water as the working fluid operates its
condenser at 40°C and its boiler at 300°C for the given enthalpies.
h1= 167.53 kJ/kg
h2= 176.18 kJ/kg
h3= 2749.6 kJ/kg
h4= 1775.1 kJ/kg
 Calculate the work produced by the turbine, the heat supplied in the boiler, and the
thermal efficiency of this cycle when the steam enters the turbine without any
superheating.

wturb,out = 974.5 kJ/kg

Pump (q = 0): wpump, in = h2 - h1

Boiler (w = 0): qin = h3 - h2

qin = 2573.4 kJ/kg

qout =1607.6 kJ/kg

Turbine (q = 0): wturb,out = h3 - h4
thermal efficiency = 37.5%

Condenser (w = 0): qout = h4 - h1

back work ratio (rbw = wpump, in /wturb, out)

 7-8 OTTO CYCLE
• An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the
functioning of a typical spark ignition piston engine.

The processes are described by:

Process 0–1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder
arrangement at constant pressure.
• Process 1–2 is an adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the
charge as the piston moves from bottom dead center (BDC) to
top dead centre (TDC).
41
7-8 OTTO CYCLE

Process 2–3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the working fluid

from an external source while the piston is at top dead centre. This
process is intended to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture.
Process 3–4 is an adiabatic (isentropic) expansion (power stroke).
Process 4–1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in
which heat is rejected from the air while the piston is at bottom dead
centre.
Process 1–0 the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in a
constant pressure process. 42