The Human

Digestive System
The human being is
gifted with a digestive
system, which is
complex food processor
where mechanical and
chemical digestion take
place.
The energy content of the
food taken is released by
metabolic activity. Studying
the parts and functions of
the digestive system is
therefore of utmost
importance.
The digestive tracts and
accessory organs,
coordinate with one
another to transform food
into a form that can be
used by the cells of the
body.
Each digestive organ
performs a specific
function as the food
taken into the body
is processed.
MOUTH
Mouth is the beginning of the
digestive tract. It is the part of
the tract in which food is taken.
It includes the oral cavity, the
space within the mouth, and the
accessory structures like the
tongue, teeth, and salivary
glands.
It is the part of the
digestive tract where
food is first processed
mechanically and
chemically.
Ingestion is the process of
taking food into the mouth
or oral cavity. It is also
called the act of eating. The
tongue, teeth, and salivary
glands in the mouth play a
role in digestion.
The two types of
digestion,
mechanical and
chemical, take place
in the mouth.
Mechanical digestion
happens as the food is bitten,
torn, and crushed between
the teeth. As the food is
being chewed, the salivary
glands are stimulated to
produce saliva.
The smell and the taste
of food cause the
salivary glands to
produce saliva. Saliva
contains an enzyme
called amylase.
An enzyme is a protein that
aids chemical processes.
Chemical digestion begins
when amylase breaks down
complex carbohydrate
(starch) into simple sugars
The tongue is a movable muscular
organ inside the mouth or oral
cavity. Its ability to move enables
the partly digested mass of food
called bolus to be forwarded to the
other digestive organs for further
digestion and absorption of
nutrients.
The surface of the tongue
has projections called
papillae some of which
have taste buds. The taste
buds are structures that are
responsible for identifying
the tastes of foods.
They stimulate the
production of certain
enzymes in the mouth
that partly break down
and help digest the
food.
The teeth, are bone like
structures in the upper and
lower parts of the mouth.
The kinds of teeth
according to their function
are the incisors, canines,
premolars, and molars.
The incisors are chisel-
shaped teeth that are
used for biting food. The
canines are pointed teeth
that are used for tearing,
piercing, or cutting food.
The premolars and
molars are teeth with
broad, rounded, and
flattened surface. These
teeth are used for
grinding and mashing
food.
The salivary glands are
structures in the mouth
that produce saliva,
which keeps the mouth
moist and clean.
The major salivary
glands are :
1.Parotid Glands
2.Sublingual Glands
3.Submandibular Glands
Parotid salivary
glands are found
near the ear. They
produce enzymes
that act on starches.
Sublingual salivary
glands are found under
the tongue. They
produce watery mucus
that lubricates the
mouth.
Submandibular salivary
glands are located under
the mandible or lower
jaw. These glands
produce water that
mainly constitutes saliva.
The pharynx (throat) is
a thin walled chamber at
the back of the mouth
that leads to either the
respiratory tract or the
digestive tract.
The epiglottis is a flap like
elastic tissue. It forms a lid over
the larynx or voice box. It
directs any incoming food or
liquid into the esophagus,
preventing this from entering
the respiratory organs such as
the trachea or windpipe.
The esophagus is a
muscular tube that
transports food to the
stomach. It is about 25
centimeters or 10 inches
long. It extends from the
upper part of the stomach.
A muscle ring called cardio
esophageal sphincter allows
the entry of partly digested
food into the stomach by
way of rhythmic muscle
contractions called
peristalsis.
The stomach is a J-
shaped expandable bag
connected to both the
esophagus and the
small intestine.
It is the region where the
food is broken down and
temporarily stored. The
stomach has different kinds
of glands that produce
specific kinds of substances.
The gastric glands in
the stomach produce
hydrochloric acid
and enzymes, which
further digest food.
Hydrochloric acid turns the
bolus into soupy substances
called chyme. The enzyme
pepsin digest proteins in the
stomach, converting these
polypeptides.
A polypeptide is a
chain of several amino
acids. Amino acids are
the basic components
of proteins.
The mucosal glands
produce a thick, sticky
substance called mucus that
protect the stomach from
the harmful effects of
gastric acid and enzyme.
 A muscle ring called
pyloric sphincter
allows the entry of
chyme into the small
intestine.
The small intestine
is a long tube
between the
stomach and the
large intestine.
Small intestines measures
about 4 cm to 1.5 inches in
diameter. Its three regions
are the duodenum, the
Jejunom and Ileum.. The
duodenum which is about
25.04 cm or 10 inches in
length.
The jejunum is about 8
feet or 2.5 meters in
length. The ileum, the
longest part of the small
intesti8ne, is about 12 ft
or 3.5 m long.
The ileum, the
longet part of th
small intestine, is
about 12 ft. or 3.5 m
long.
Further digestion and
absorption take place in
the duodenum. It is the
part of the small intestine
that receives secretions
from the pancreas and
gall bladder.
Further absorption of
nutrients takes place in
the jejunum. Extraction
of nutrients happens in
the ileum.
The inner part of the small
intestine has many folds. On
the surface of these folds are
fingerlike structures called villi,
which provide a huge surface
area for the absorption of
nutrients. Smaller villi called
microvilli are also present.
As the chyme moves into the
duodenum, it is acted upon by
the intestinal juices,
pancreatic enzyme, and bile, a
yellow or greenish fluid
produced by the liver and
stored in the gallbladder.
The pancreatic
enzymes produced by
the pancreas break
down carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins. The
bile dissolves fats.
Dextrinase and
glucoamylase convert
simple sugars to maltose,
which is converted to
glucose by the enzyme
maltase.
The enzyme lactase acts on
lactose or milk sugar, while
sucrase acts on sucrose or table
sugar. The simple sugars such
as glucose, galactose, and
fructose enter the capillaries of
the villi and are transported to
the liver by way of the hepatic
portal vein.
Amylase of the
pancreas takes part in
breaking down
carbohydrates in the
small intestine to its
final form, glucose.
Aminopeptidase,
carboxypepidase, and
dipeptidase convert
polypeptides to amino
acids. Amino acids enter by
way of the hepatic portal
vein to the liver.
Bile salts from the liver and
pancreatic amylase from the
pancreas convert lipids to
their final forms – as
monoglycerides and fatty
acids and glycerol and fatty
acids.
These are absorbed
by the lacteals in the
villi and are then
transported to the
liver.
Absorption of
carbohydrates, fats and
proteins takes place in
the jejunun. Absorption
of some vitamins and
other nutrients takes
place in the ileum.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is a
tube shorter and wider
than usual than the small
intestine. It measures
about 2 m in length and
about 6.5 cm in diameter
Its regions are
the cecum,
colon, and
rectum.
The cecum is the part of
the large intestine
attached to the small
intestine. A small tail like
called appendix is a part
of the cecum.
The colon is further
subsided into the
ascending colon, the
transverse colon, the
descending colon, and
the sigmoid colon.
The ascending colon is
directed upward and
turns to the left of the
abdomen. The transverse
colon passes horizontally
across the abdomen.
The descending colon is
attached to the sigmoid
colon. The sigmoid colon
is connected to the
rectum that leads to the
anal canal then to the
anus.
The main functions of the
large intestine are the re-
absorption of water, and the
formation and movement of
feces to the anus. No
digestion of food takes
place in the large intestine.
Undigested food is passed
into the colon of the large
intestine. Here the
absorption of water into the
bloodstream takes place.
The undigested materials
are stored in the rectum.
The undigested materials
pass into the anal canal
and is removed through
the anus by strong
muscle contractions in
the rectum.
A muscle ring called
anal sphincter
regulates the
elimination of
undigested materials.