Network Essentials

Network Essentials
Network
Essentials
Copyright © UTL Technologies Ltd 2016 All rights reserved

Network Essentials
An Introduction to Networking

Network Essentials
Introducing Networks
A network is an interconnection of a group of computers

that can communicate and share resources such as hard
disks and printers.
A network is a group of computers and other devices that
are connected by some type of transmission media.
The initial idea of a network was perceived by Department
of Defense (DOD) in USA for the purpose of security.
Some advantages of networks are:
Sharing of information across the network
Optimum utilization of hardware resources
Centralization of data management

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How Networks Are Used
File services: capability of a server to share data files,

applications, and disk storage space.
Print services: used to share printers across a network.
Communications services: Allow remote users to connect to the
remote network.
Mail services: Transfer of e-mail between users on a network.
Internet services: Supplying Web pages, file transfer
capabilities, and a means for directly logging on to other
computers on the Internet.
Management services: centrally administer management
tasks on the network like Traffic monitoring and control.

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Understanding Internetworking Servers
Internetworking services are the services in a networking

environment that are accessible to users within an intranet
or the Internet.
The following are some of the services provided by the
Internetworking servers:
File Transfer
WWW
E-mail

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Network Topologies

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Network Topologies
Network topology is a schematic layout or a map of the

arrangement of nodes over a network.
This layout also determines the manner in which
information is exchanged within the network.
Types of network topologies:
Bus
Star
Ring

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Bus Topology
The bus topology connects all the nodes on a network to a

main cable called bus.
In the bus topology, each packet that is placed on the bus
contains the address of the destination node and is
transmitted in both directions along the bus.
A single high capacity cable is required thus requiring
minimum cabling and its cost.
Entire cable setup needs to be reconfigured to add a node.
Time consuming process to troubleshoot as every point
needs to be checked to locate the fault.
The Bus Topology

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Bus Topology (Continued)
A Terminated Bus Topology
network

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Star Topology
The star topology connects nodes over a network using a

central control unit called the hub.
Nodes to a star-based network can be easily attached to the
hub.
All the nodes are connected to the hub thus requiring lot of
cabling and cost.
A faulty hub can disrupt the entire network.
The Star Topology

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Star Topology (Continued)
A Typical Star Topology Network

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Ring Topology
The ring topology connects the nodes on a network through

a point-to-point connection.
Easy to locate cable faults in a ring.
The entire network stops functioning, if any of the nodes in
the network malfunctions.
The Ring Topology

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Ring Topology (Continued)
A Typical Ring Topology Network

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Network Categories

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Network Categories
The resources and software capabilities that nodes in a

network share are commonly known as services.
Networks are categorized as:
Peer-to-peer
Client / Server

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Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there is no specific distinction

between a client and a server.
Every computer can communicate directly with every other
computer.
By default, no computer has more authority than another.
Every computer is capable of sending and receiving
information to and from every other computer.
The following figure illustrates the peer-to-peer network:
The Peer-to-Peer Network

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Peer-to-Peer Networks (Continued)
Resource sharing on a Simple Peer-to-Peer Network

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Client / Server Networks
In a client / server network, the requests are processed

centrally by one or more servers.
The server is a system with high processing power, which
provides services for the other computers in a network.
The client is a system that accesses resources available on
a server.
In a client / server network setup, the server is responsible
for processing the requests sent by the clients.
The Client / Server Network The Client-Server Network Setup

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Client / Server Networks (Continued)
Resource sharing on a Client / Server Network

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Client / Server Networks (Continued)
Advantages of using client/server networks over peer-to-peer

networks:
User logon accounts and passwords can be assigned in one place.
Access to multiple shared resources can be centrally granted to a
single user or groups of users.
Problems can be tracked, diagnosed, and often fixed from one
location.
Servers are optimized to handle heavy processing loads and
dedicated to handling requests from clients, enabling faster
response time.
Because of their efficient processing and larger disk storage, servers
can connect more than a handful of computers on a network.
To function as a server, a computer must be running a network
operating system (NOS).

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Elements of Client / Server Networks
Client
Server
Network interface card (NIC)
NOS
Connectivity device

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Network Operating Systems

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Network Operating System
Network Operating System (NOS) is an enhanced version

of an operating system, with features that allow the
management and connectivity of nodes within a network.
NOS allows the sharing of information and resources based
on the accessibility privileges allocated to each user or
node.
Popular NOSs include:
Windows Server 2008 R2
UNIX
Linux

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Functions of Network Operating System
Centrally manage network resources, such as programs, data,

and devices.
Allow remote users to connect to a network.
Allow users to connect to other networks.
Secure access to a network.
Data backup & restore.
Allow for simple additions of clients and resources.
Monitor status and functionality of network elements.
Distribute programs and software updates to clients.
Provide fault tolerance in case of a hardware or software
problem.

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Windows Server 2008 R2
Windows Server 2008 R2 is a 64-bit operating system. It is

a Microsoft product, which operates on single and
multiprocessor systems.
The features of the Windows Server 2008 R2 operating
system are as follows:
Active Directory
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Terminal services
NTFS
Windows Deployment Services
Hyper V
IPv6 Implementation

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UNIX
Bell Labs launched the UNIX network operating system.

Many versions of UNIX, such as Sun Solaris, AIX UNIX, HP
UNIX, and BSD, are available in the market.
Some of the features of UNIX, which allow networking at
the operating system level, are:
Internet-based services
Compatibility with different protocols
Network security

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LINUX
The Linux network operating system, developed by Linus

Torvalds, is based on the UNIX architecture.
Linux is an open source operating system in which the
source code or the program of the operating system is
available free of cost.
This provides flexibility to the user to modify the operating
system according to individual requirements.
Linux provides services like Apache, Samba and NFS.

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Types of Network

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Types of Network
Depending on the size and the area that networks cover,

the networks are primarily categorized into the following
types:
Local Area Networks (LANs)
Wide Area Networks (WANs)

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Local Area Network
A LAN is a small-scale network that extends over relatively

small distances.
The following figure depicts a typical LAN setup:
N ode1
N ode 2 N ode 3
Typical LAN Setup

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Wide Area Network
A Wide Area Network (WAN) provides network connectivity

spanning across large geographical area, such as across
states, countries, or across the globe.
The following figure depicts WAN connectivity between two
buildings at Miami and Texas, across the Internet using the
services of a service provider.
The WAN Connectivity

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Transmission Basics

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Transmission Direction
There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according

to the direction of the exchanges:
Simplex
Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex (Duplex)

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Transmission Direction (Continued)
Simplex: signals may travel in only one direction.
Half-Duplex: signals may travel in both directions over a medium

but only one direction at a time.
Full-Duplex or Duplex: signals free to travel in both directions

over a medium simultaneously.

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Bandwidth
In computer networking bandwidth refers to the data rate supported

by a network connection.
In the field of electrical engineering, bandwidth represents the

difference between highest and lowest frequencies that a medium
can transmit.
Bandwidth represents the capacity of the connection.
The greater the capacity, the more likely that greater performance
will follow, though overall performance also depends on other
factors, such as latency.
We most commonly expresses bandwidth in terms of bits per

second (bps).

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Latency
Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal.
Many possible causes:

Cable length
Inter connectivity device e.g. routers.
Round Trip Time (RTT)
Time for packets to go from sender to receiver and back.

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Throughput
In communication networks, network throughput is the average rate

of successful message delivery over a communication channel.
The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bps).

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Attenuation
Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the

strength of a signal.
Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or

analog. Sometimes called loss, attenuation is a natural
consequence of signal transmission over long distances.

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OSI Reference Model

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The OSI Model
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization

(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

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Application Layer
7 Application Provides network access to application

programs (such as electronic mail, file
transfer)

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Presentation Layer
7 Application Network access to application programs
6 Presentation Data representation

• Ensures data is readable by
receiving system
• Format of data
• Negotiates data transfer syntax for
application layer

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Session Layer
7 Application Network services to applications
5 Session Inter-host communication

• Establishes, manages, and
terminates sessions between
applications

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Transport Layer
4 Transport End-to-end connection reliability

• Concerned with data transport issues
between hosts
• Data transport reliability
• Establishes, maintains, and
terminates virtual circuits
• Error detection and recovery
• Information flow control

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Network Layer
3 Network Addresses and best path

• Define Logical addressing and path
selection between two end systems
• Routing of packets

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Data Link Layer
2 Data Link Access to media

• Physical addressing, error
notification, flow control

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Physical Layer
2 Data Link Access to media
1 Physical Binary transmission

• Wires, connectors, data rates

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Host Layers
}
7 Application
6 Presentation Host layers: Provide accurate
5 Session data delivery between computers.
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical

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Media Layers
}
7 Application
6 Presentation Host layers: Provide accurate
5 Session data delivery between computers.
4 Transport
}
3 Network
Media layers: Control physical

2 Data Link delivery of messages over the
1 Physical network.

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Application Layer
Provides the interface between the user and the network.
COMPUTER
APPLICATIONS NETWORK
Word Processor APPLICATIONS INTERNETWORK
Presentation Graphics Electronic Mail APPLICATIONS
Spreadsheet File Transfer Electronic Data Interchange
Database Remote Access World Wide Web
Design/Manufacturing Client-Server Process E-Mail Gateways
Others Network Management Special-Interest Bulletin Boards
Others Financial Transaction Services
Internet Navigation Utilities
Conferencing (Voice, Video, Data)
Others

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Presentation Layer
Provides code formatting and conversion for applications.
• Text • Graphics
• Data • Visual images
ASCII PICT
login:
EBCDIC TIFF
Encrypted JPEG
• Sound GIF
MIDI
• Video
MPEG
QuickTime

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Session Layer
Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.
Service Request
Service Reply

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Transport Layer
Establishes an end-to-end connection.

Sends segments from one end host to another.
Ensures data reliability.
Organizing messages into segments or breaking large
segments into smaller segments.
Delivering segments to the recipients.
Providing error control.

Network Essentials
Transport Layer (Continued)
Sender Receiver
Synchronize
Negotiate Connection
Synchronize
Acknowledge
Connection Established
Data Transfer
(Send Segments)
Copyright © UTL Technologies Ltd 2016 . All rights reserved

Network Essentials
• Window Size = 1
Send 1 Receive 1
Ack 2
Sender Send 2 Receive 2 Receiver
Ack 3
• Window Size = 3
Send 1 Receive 1
Send 2 Receive 2
Sender
Send 3 Receive 3 Receiver
Ack 4
Send 4

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Sender Receiver
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Send 1
Send 2
Send 3
Ack 4
Send 4
Send 5
Send 6
Ack 5
Send 5
Ack 7
Network Essentials
Network Layer
This layer is responsible for the following functions:

Providing unique logical addresses to each node on the
network.
Transmitting data across networks.
Controlling network traffic.
Best Path Determination.

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Network Layer : Best Path Determination
Layer 3 functions to find the best path through the internetwork.
Which
Which Path?
Path?

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Data Link Layer (Continued)
A NIC’s MAC address

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MAC Address (Physical Address, Hardware Address)
24 bits 24 bits
Vendor Code Serial Number
0000.0c12. 3456
ROM
RAM
MAC address is burned into ROM on a network interface card

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Functions of the OSI Layer

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Data Encapsulation
Host A Host B
} {
Application Application
Presentation Data Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network
Data Link Data Link
Physical Physical

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Data Encapsulation (Continued)

Host A Host B
} {
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Data
Network Header Network
Data Link Data Link
Physical Physical

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Host A Host B
} {
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Data
Header
Network Network
Frame Network Data Frame

Data Link Data Link
Header Header Trailer
Physical Physical

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Host A Host B
} {
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Data
Header
Network Network
Frame Network Data Frame

Data Link Data Link
Header Header Trailer
Physical Physical
0101101010110001

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Communication
Host A Host B
7 Application Application
6 Presentation Presentation
5 Session Session
4 Transport Segments Transport
3 Network Packets Network
2 Data Link Data Link
Frames
1 Physical Physical
Bits

Network Essentials
What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of established and agreed-upon rules

required to enable effective communication on a network.
Protocols can either be developed by a vendor or by a
networking standard organization.
A protocol suite is a hierarchical collection of protocols.
Some of the protocol suites are:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
IPX/SPX Protocol Suite
AppleTalk Protocol Suite

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Introduction to TCP/IP
(DoD Model)

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TCP/IP Model (DoD Model)
The DoD model is basically a condensed version of the OSI

model.
It’s composed of four, instead of seven, layers:
1) Process/Application layer
2) Host-to-Host layer (Transport layer)
3) Internet layer
4) Network Access layer

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Comparing The OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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Application Layer Protocols

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Host-to-Host Layer (Transport Layer) Protocols

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Internet Layer Protocols

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Network Access Layer Protocols

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Transmission Control Protocol

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Creates a reliable connection between two computers.
TCP is one of the main protocol in TCP/IP protocol suite.
Whereas the IP protocol deals only with packets, TCP enables

two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of
data.
TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that

segment will be delivered in the same order in which they were
sent.

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Note:
A packet in TCP is called a

segment.

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Key Features of TCP

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TCP 3 way Handshake

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A TCP Connection
TCP is connection-oriented.
A connection-oriented transport protocol establishes a virtual

path between the source and destination.
All of the segments belonging to a message are then sent over

this virtual path.
A connection-oriented transmission requires three phases:

Connection establishment
Data transfer
Connection termination

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit hand-

shaking dialogues for providing reliability, ordering, or data
integrity.
Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagram's may

arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without
notice.

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Comparison of TCP and UDP

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Addresses in TCP/IP
Three different levels of addresses are used in an internet:

Physical address (MAC Address)
Logical address (IP Address)
Port Address (Port Numbers)

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Addresses in TCP/IP

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Port Numbers
TCP and the upper layers don’t use MAC and IP addresses to
understand the sending host’s address as the Data Link and
Network layer protocols do. Instead, they use port numbers.
TCP and UDP must use port numbers to communicate with the
upper layers because they’re what keep track of different
applications' conversations crossing the network simultaneously.
Originating source port numbers are dynamically assigned by

the operating system of the source host and will equal some
number starting at 1024.
These port numbers identify the source and destination

application or process in the TCP segment.

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Port Numbers (Continued)
The port numbers are divided into three ranges:

Well Known Ports
Registered Ports
Dynamic or Private Ports

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Well Known Ports (0–1023)

The port numbers in the range from 0 to 1023 are the well-
known ports. They are used by system processes that provide
widely-used types of network services.
Registered Ports (1024–49151)

The ranges of port number from 1024 to 49151 are the
registered ports. They are assigned by IANA for specific service
upon application by a requesting entity.
Dynamic or Private Ports (49152–65535)

The range above the registered ports contains dynamic or
private ports that cannot be registered with IANA. It is used for
custom or temporary purposes and for automatic allocation by
operating system.

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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Socket
The combination of IP address and port number. e.g. 201.0.0.1:80

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Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast
Unicast: These are sent to a single destination host.
Multicast: These are packets sent from a single source host and
transmitted to many devices on different networks.
Broadcasts: These are sent to all hosts on the network.

Network Essentials
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol )
In TCP/IP communications, a datagram (packet) on a local-area

network must contain both a destination MAC address and a
destination IP address.
There needs to be a way to automatically map IP to MAC

address.
ARP associates an IP address with its MAC address. On a typical

physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is
identified by a physical or MAC address that is usually imprinted
on the NIC.
The TCP/IP suite has a protocol, called Address Resolution

Protocol (ARP), which can automatically obtain MAC addresses
for local transmission.

Network Essentials
Address Resolution Protocol (Continued)
Used by a sending host when it knows the IP address of the

destination but needs the MAC address.

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Address Resolution Protocol (Continued)
ARP is a broadcast protocol – every host on the network receives

the request.
Each host checks the request against it’s IP address the right
one responds.

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Four cases using ARP

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ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
ICMP is a network protocol used for reporting errors that might

have occurred while transferring data packets over networks.
ICMP is designed for network diagnosis and to find out as to what

went wrong in the data communication.
ICMP can be used to report:

errors in the underlying communications of network
applications.
availability of remote hosts.
Best known example of ICMP in practice is the ping utility,
that uses ICMP protocol.

Network Essentials
ICMP In Action
When Host A sends a packet destined for Host B, the Lab_B router
will send an ICMP destination unreachable message back to the
sending device (Host A in this example).

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Application Layer Protocols
HTTP
FTP
TFTP
TELNET
SSH
DNS
SMTP
POP
IMAP

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HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol )
Web servers implement this protocol.
The underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted,

and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in
response to various commands.
For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this

actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it
to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.

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FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP protocol is used for downloading and uploading files over

the Internet.
FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web

pages from a server to a user's browser.
FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server

using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g. uploading
a document file to a server).

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TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
It can do nothing but send and receive files.
TFTP has no directory-browsing abilities.
There’s no authentication as with FTP, so it’s insecure.

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TELNET
It allows a user to remotely access the resources of another

system on the network.
Telnet is a text-mode type program.
Telnet is not secure.

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SSH (Secure Shell)
SSH is a network protocol that allows you to remotely access

the resources of another system on the network.
Allows data to be exchanged using a secure channel between

two networked devices.
SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet which send

information, notably passwords, in plaintext, rendering them
susceptible to packet analysis.
The encryption used by SSH is intended to provide

confidentiality and integrity of data over an unsecured network,
such as the Internet.

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DNS (Domain Name Service)
A Domain Name Server (DNS) lookup is the conversion of a

domain name into its respective IP address.
Domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember.
The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses, Every

time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must
translate the name into the corresponding IP address.

Network Essentials
DNS (Continued)
For example, the domain name www.example.com might

translate to 198.105.232.4.
If one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a particular

domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct
IP address is returned.

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Domain name space

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Hierarchy of name servers

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DNS In The Internet
The domain name space (tree) is divided into two different

sections:
Generic domains
Country domains

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DNS used in the Internet

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Generic domains

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Generic Domain Labels

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Country Domains

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SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
SMTP is used for sending email messages.
Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use
SMTP to send messages from one server to another; the
messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using
either POP or IMAP.
In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a

mail client to a mail server. This is why you need to specify
both the POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when you
configure your e-mail application.

Network Essentials
POP (Post Office Protocol Version 3)
POP3 protocol is used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server.
Most e-mail applications (sometimes called an e-mail client)

use the POP3 protocol, although some can use the newer IMAP
(Internet Message Access Protocol).

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IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
A protocol for retrieving e-mail messages.
IMAP was developed at Stanford University in 1986.

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Transmission Media

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Transmission Media
The physical channel that is used for connecting the

components of a network, such as nodes and printers, is
known as transmission medium.
The types of transmission media include the following:
Cables
Wireless

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Cables
Cables are the conventional media used to setup networks.
There are three types of cables:

Coaxial Cables
Twisted Pair Cables
Fiber-optic Cables

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Coaxial Cables
These cables are designed in such a manner that the center

conductor and the outside braided metal shield share a
common axis.

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Twisted Pair Cables
These cables use copper wires, which are good conductors

of electricity.
Color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together.
Twist ratio: twists per meter or foot.
Higher twist ratio reduces crosstalk and increases
attenuation

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Types of Twisted Pair Cables
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
These cables consist of multiple twisted pairs (TPs) surrounded

by an insulator shield. This insulator shield, in turn, is covered
with a plastic encasement.

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) (Continued)

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
These cables consist of a set of twisted pairs that are covered

with a plastic jacket, as shown in the following figure.
Most common form of cabling found on LANs today.
TIA/EIA 568 standard divides twisted-pair wiring into several
categories: CAT 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6, 6e, 7

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Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
CAT 3 (Category 3): up to 10 Mbps of throughput

CAT 4 (Category 4): 16 Mbps throughput
CAT 5 (Category 5): up to 1000 Mbps throughput
CAT 5e (Enhanced Category 5): higher twist ratio
CAT 6 (Category 6): six times the throughput of CAT 5
CAT 6e (Enhanced Category 6): reduced attenuation and crosstalk
CAT 7 (Category 7): signal rates up to 1 GHz

Network Essentials
Comparing STP & UTP
STP cables are shielded while UTP cables are unshielded.

STP cables are more immune to interference and noise than UTP
cables.
STP cables are better at maximizing bandwidth compared to UTP
cables.
STP cables cost more per meter compared to UTP cables.
STP cables are heavier per meter compared to UTP cables.
UTP cables are more prevalent in SOHO networks while STP is
used in more high-end networks.

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Fiber-optic
These cables are based on fiber optic technology, which uses

light rays instead of electricity to transmit data. The following
figure shows a fiber-optic cable.
Contains glass or plastic fibers at core surrounded by layer of
glass or plastic cladding.
Reflects light back to core.

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Types of Fiber-optic
Fiber-optic cables can be differentiated into the following two

categories:
Single-mode
Multimode

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Single Mode Fiber
Narrow core through which laser-generated light travels over

one path, reflecting very little.
Accommodates high bandwidths and long distances.
Expensive.

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Multi Mode Fiber
Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for

communication over short distances, such as within a building or
on a campus.

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Connectors
&
Media Converters

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Connectors for Coaxial Cable

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Connectors for UTP Cable
RJ45 Connector for UTP Cable

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Connectors for Fiber-optic Cable
MTRJ
SC
ST

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Media Converters
Media converters are simple networking devices that
make it possible to connect two dissimilar media types
such as twisted pair with fiber optic cabling.

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LAN Technologies

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LAN Technologies
Ethernet
Token Ring
FDDI

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Ethernet
Ethernet is a contention media access method that allows all

hosts on a network to share the same bandwidth of a link.
Ethernet is popular because it’s scalable, meaning that it’s

comparatively easy to integrate new technologies, such as Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, into an existing network
infrastructure.
Ethernet uses both Data Link and Physical layer specifications.

Network Essentials
Collision
In a half duplex Ethernet network, a collision is the result of two

devices on the same Ethernet network attempting to transmit
data at exactly the same time.
The network detects the "collision" of the two transmitted

packets and discards them both.

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Collision Domain
A collision domain is a physical network segment where data

packets can collide with one another when being sent on a
shared medium, in particular, when using the Ethernet
networking protocol.

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Ethernet Operation
A B C D
Collision
A B C D
JAM JAM JAM JAM JAM JAM

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Ethernet Communication
Ethernet networking uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with

Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
CSMA/CD is a protocol that helps devices share the bandwidth

evenly without having two devices transmit at the same time on
the network medium.
CSMA/CD was created to overcome the problem of those

collisions that occur when packets are transmitted simultaneously
from different devices.

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How does the CSMA/CD Protocols works?

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Ethernet Communication Steps
1. The device will first listen to the media to determine is

someone transmitting.
2. If no device is transmitting, the it can start transmitting.
3. While transmitting, the device will continue listening for

other devices trying to transmit.
4. If it detects another device transmitting, it will signal a

COLLISION.
If a collision occurs both devices will stop transmitting,

wait a random amount of time and start back a step 1

Network Essentials
CSMA/CD
The previous steps define the protocol used by Ethernet called

CSMA/CD.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect

Carrier Sense – The device must check the media to
see if its free.
Multiple Access – More than one device is attached to
the network.
Collision detect – The ability to detect and respond to
collisions.

Network Essentials
Effects of Collisions
The following are the effects of having a CSMA/CD network

sustaining heavy collisions:
Delay
Low throughput
Congestion
The best remedy for collisions is to upgrade to a full duplex

switched environment.

Network Essentials
High Speed Ethernet Options
Ethernet (10 MBPS)

Fast Ethernet (100 MBPS)
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 MBPS)

Network Essentials
What is Fast Ether Channel?
Grouping
Grouping of
of multiple
multiple Fast
Fast Ethernet
Ethernet interfaces
interfaces
into one logical transmission path
path
800
800 Mb
Mb
• Scalable bandwidth up to 800+ Mbps
800
800 Mb
Mb
• Using industry-standard Fast
Ethernet
• Load balancing across parallel links
600
600 Mb
Mb • Extendable to Gigabit Ethernet
400
400 Mb
Mb

Network Essentials
What is Gigabit Ethernet?
• 1000-Mbps data rate

• 802.3/Ethernet frames 80%
• Full duplex or half duplex Backbone
• Fiber or copper media
• 100% compatible with existing: 20%
– Network protocols
– Network operating systems 20%
– Network applications
– Network management 80%
Workgroup

Network Essentials
What is PoE (Power Over Ethernet) ?

Network Essentials
Token Ring
LAN Technology developed by IBM.
Token Ring uses a ring topology.
However, the devices are connected in a star configuration with a

MAU (Media Access Unit), not a hub, being in the center.

Network Essentials
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
FDDI uses fiber optic cables.
Because of the cost, FDDI is usually used to connect LANs

together and not devices.

Network Essentials
FDDI (Continued)
FDDI is sometimes called Dual-Counter Rotating Rings.
There are two pieces of fiber that carry data in opposite

directions.

Network Essentials
FDDI (Continued)
One ring is called the Primary and the other is Secondary.
Most data gets transmitted on the primary ring.
The secondary ring is usually reserved for system maintenance

and if there is a failure of the primary ring.
If one ring breaks, any device can switch data from one ring to
the other.

Network Essentials
Networking Devices

Network Essentials
Network Devices
LANs or WANs do not normally operate in isolation. They are

connected to one another or to the Internet. To connect LANs or
WANs, we use network connecting devices. Network devices
can operate in different layers of the Internet model.
Any network requires hardware components that make up the

network so that the nodes within it can communicate with each
other and exchange information.

Network Essentials
Network Devices (Continued)
The hardware components used in a network include the following devices:
Hubs
Bridges
Switches
Routers

Network Essentials
Network Device Function at Layers
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
NIC Card 1 Physical

Hub

Network Essentials
Hub
A hub is a device that receives a signal on one port and
retransmits it on one or more other ports.
Hubs can be used to extend the distance that a signal travels.
In the process of retransmitting the signal, the signal is

reconditioned.
Hubs used at the center of a star topology.
Network Setup Using a Hub

Network Essentials
Hub In Action
Hub
Signal at its limit Signal strength

due to attenuation restored

Network Essentials
Hub In Action (Continued)
Hub

Network Essentials
Hub (Continued)

Network Essentials
Bridge
Bridges are devices to connect network segments to each other.
The following figure depicts the use of bridges in management of

network traffic.
Network Setup Using a Bridge

Network Essentials
Switches
Switches are intelligent network devices that provide universal
connectivity.
Switch can create multiple, simultaneous virtual connections

between nodes.
This allows each node to have a dedicated connection to the

network instead of a shared connection.
Can operate at layer 2, 3, or 4 of OSI model.

Network Essentials
Switches
Switches are multiport bridges.
Each port on switch is a separate collision domain.
Each connected device effectively receives own dedicated

channel.

Network Essentials
Switches (Continued)

Network Essentials
Components of Switch
Ports
Ports on a single switch can have different speeds or use different
media.
Frame buffers
Frames may be stored temporarily for various reasons in memory
called frame buffers.
Backplane bus
The circuitry that connects line cards and ports.
Switching Fabric
Transfers data from port to port.

Network Essentials
Switch Operation
Backplane
Ports
Stored in Frame Buffer
Two frames arrive simultaneously on different ports

Network Essentials
Functions of Switch
Address Learning
Switches examine the source MAC address of each frame and
build a MAC address table (CAM) so they can forward frames
correctly.
Frame Forwarding / Filtering

When a frame arrives, the switch looks up its destination MAC
address in the CAM table to determine what to do with it.

Network Essentials
Frame Forwarding Decision
Broadcast
Forwarded out every port except the one it arrived on.
Acts like a layer 1 repeater.
Unicast
If the destination address is in the CAM then.
If the address is on a different port than the one the frame arrived
on, the frame is forwarded out the correct port.
If the destination address is not in the CAM then the frame is
treated like a broadcast.

Network Essentials
Full – Duplex Ethernet
Switches allow connections to be full-duplex.
Each individual port can be configured independently.
Full-duplex operation allows communication in both directions

simultaneously.
CSMA/CD is no longer relevant in full-duplex operation.
A full-duplex Fast Ethernet connection has a total potential

throughput of 200 Mbps.

Network Essentials
Full – Duplex Ethernet (Continued)
Full-Duplex Ethernet can be used in three situations:
With a connection from a switch to a host.
With a connection from a switch to a switch.
With a connection from a host to a host using a crossover cable.

Network Essentials
Full – Duplex Ethernet (Continued)
Lastly, remember these three important points:
There are no collisions in full-duplex mode.
A dedicated switch port is required for each full-duplex node.
The host network card and the switch port must be capable of
operating in full-duplex mode.

Network Essentials
Routers
Routers are layer 3 network devices that provide connectivity
between WANs and LANs, between networks with different
topologies, or between networks using different network
standards.
The following figure depicts a network setup with routers:
Network Setup Using a Router

Network Essentials
Routers (Continued)
A router is a layer 3 device that provides these functions:
Packet Switching
Best Path Determination
Packet Filtering
Internetwork Communications

Network Essentials
Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)
An IP address is to your computer what your mobile number is to

you in the real world – An identity at which you can be contacted.
An hackers first step is to find out the IP address of the target

system.
An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally

defines the connection of a host or a router to the Internet.

Network Essentials
Depending on the region, an Internet Service Provider (ISP) must

obtain the required IP address block from the registry that
controls IP address allocation in its region.
An IP address is divided into four groups, which are separated by

dots ("."). These groups are commonly known as octets.
Each octet constitutes 8 bits, where each bit can either have a
binary value of 1 or 0, as shown in the following figure.
32-bit Structure of an IP Address

Network Essentials
To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually

written as four decimal numbers separated by periods.
This way of writing the address is called the dotted decimal

format.

Network Essentials
IPv4 Address

Network Essentials
Classes of IPv4 Address

Network Essentials
Classes of IPv4 Address (Continued)

Network Essentials
Classes of IPv4 Address (Continued)

Network Essentials
Note:
The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

Network Essentials
Dotted-decimal notation

Network Essentials
Reserved IP Addresses
Certain host addresses are

reserved and cannot be
assigned to devices on a
network.
An IP address that has binary
0s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the network
address.
An IP address that has binary
1s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the network
address.

Network Essentials
Public Vs Private IP Addresses
No two machines that connect to a public network can have the

same IP address because public IP addresses are global and
standardized.
However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet

may use any IP addresses, as long as each host within the private
network is unique.
Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet

requires translation of the private addresses to public addresses
using Network Address Translation (NAT).

Network Essentials
Private IP Address Range

Network Essentials
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Network Essentials

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Network Essentials

Copyright © UTL Technologies Ltd 2016 All rights reserved

Copyright © UTL Technologies Ltd 2016 All rights reserved

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