LUẬN ĐIỂM VẬT LÝ CHẤT RẮN CƠ BẢN

• Các lọai chất rắn

– Ion, cộng hóa trị, kim loại, Van der Wall và Hydro
• Lý thuyết cổ điển về tính dẫn
– Mật độ dòng j, tốc độ dòng vd, trở lực 
• Lý thuyết dải và biểu đồ dải năng lượng
– Các mức năng lượng của các nguyên tử riêng biệt tạo thành dải năng
lượng khi xích lại gần nhau trong tinh thể.
– Hàm Fermi chỉ ra dải năng lượng được lấp đầy như thế nào
– Các dải năng lượng của kim loại, chất cách điện và bán dẫn
– Tạp chất cho và nhận Donor and Acceptor dopants (Hiệu ứng
đường hầm Hall Effect).
• Linh kiện Devices
– pn junction, diode, LED, solar cell, laser.
Phys 320 - Baski Page 1
 Tính chất các chất rắn liên kết ion

• Tạo bởi lực hút tĩnh điện Coulomb giữa các ion
– Ví dụ: các cation kiềm nhóm I và các anion nhóm VII: Na+ Cl-.

• Năng lượng liên kết lớn (2-4 eV/ atom).

– Nhiệt độ nóng chảy và nhiệt độ sôi cao.

• Độ dẫn điện thấp.

– Không có electron tự do tạo dòng điện

• Trong suốt với ánh sáng nhìn thấy.

– Năng lượng photon thấp để giải phóng electron.

• Hòa tan trong chất lỏng phân cực (nước).

– Lưỡng cực của nước hút các ion.

Phys 320 - Baski Page 2

 Chất rắn liên kết ion

Năng lượng đẩy  1/rm

Năng lượng tổng

Lực hút Coulomb  -1/r

• Potential Energy: U = Uh (+,–) + U đẩy (–, –)

Phys 320 - Baski Page 3
 CẤU TRÚC TINH THỂ

Simple Cubic Body-Centered Cubic Face-Centered

Cubic

FCC
structure: Na+
NaCl

Cl-

Phys 320 - Baski Page 4

 CHẤT RẮN CỘNG HÓA TRỊ

• Ví dụ: các nguyên tố nhóm IV (C, Si) và nhóm III-V (GaAs, InSb).

• Formed by strong, localized bonds with stable, closed-shell structures.

• Larger cohesive energies than for ionic solids (4-7 eV/atom).

– Leads to higher melting and boiling points.

• Low electrical conductivity.

– Due to energy band gap that charged carriers must overcome in
order to conduct.

Phys 320 - Baski Page 5

 Types of Solids: Example Crystalline Structures
Graphite Diamond
Planar sp2 bonding Tetrahedral sp3 bonding
(good lubricant) (very hard!)

Vertical -bonds Bond angle = 109.5º

Phys 320 - Baski Page 6

 Types of Solids: Metal

• Formed by Coulombic attraction between (+) lattice ions and

(–) electron “gas.”

• Metallic bonds allows electrons to move freely through lattice.

• Smaller cohesive energy (1-4 eV).

• High electrical conductivity.

• Absorbs visible light (non-transparent, “shiny” due to re-emission).

• Good alloy formation (due to non-directional metallic bonds).

Phys 320 - Baski Page 7

 Classical Theory of Conduction (E&M Review)
Macroscopic Microscopic
dq  di
Current: i  (Amps) Current Density: J   (A/m 2 )
dt dA
 
q   idt i   J  dA
 E 
V J    E where   resistivity
i 
R   conductivity
 
J  n e vd where n  carrier density
vd  drift velocity
L m
R  where   scattering time
2
A ne 
• Drift velocity vd is net motion of electrons (0.1 to 10-7 m/s).
• Scattering time  is time between electron-lattice collisions.
Phys 320 - Baski Page 8
 Classical Theory of Conduction: Electron Motion

• Electron travels at fast velocities for a time  and then “collides” with
the crystal lattice.
• Results in a net motion opposite to the E field with drift velocity vd.
• Scatter time  decreases with increasing temperature T, i.e. more
scattering at higher temperatures (leads to higher resistivity).
Phys 320 - Baski Page 9
 Classical Theory of Conduction: Resistivity vs. Temp.

• Temperature dependence of resistivity.

FE ma
E e e m 1
    
J ne vd ne (a ) 2
ne  n

• Metal: Resistance increases with Temperature.

• Why? Temp  , n same (same # conduction electrons)  

• Semiconductor: Resistance decreases with Temperature.

• Why? Temp  , n (“free-up” carriers to conduct)  

Phys 320 - Baski Page 10

 Band Theory: Two Approaches

• There are two approaches to finding the electron energies associated

with atoms in a periodic lattice.
• Approach #1: “Bound” Electron Approach (single atom energies!)
– Isolated atoms brought close together to form a solid.
• Approach #2: “Unbound” or Free Electron Approach (E = p2/2m)
– Free electrons modified by a periodic potential (i.e. lattice ions).

• Both approaches result in grouped energy levels with allowed and

forbidden energy regions.
– Energy bands overlap for metals.
– Energy bands do not overlap (or have a “gap”) for semiconductors.

Phys 320 - Baski Page 11

 Band Theory: “Bound” Electron Approach
• For the total number N of atoms in a solid (1023 cm–3), N energy
levels split apart within a width E.
– Leads to a band of energies for each initial atomic energy level
(e.g. 1s energy band for 1s energy level).

Two atoms Six atoms Solid of N atoms

Electrons must occupy

different energies due to
Phys 320 -Pauli
Baski Exclusion principle. Page 12
 Band Diagram: Fermi-Dirac “Filling” Function
• Probability of electrons (fermions) to be found at various energy levels.

1
f FD  E   • At RT, E – EF = 0.05 eV  f(E) = 0.12
 E  EF  E – EF = 7.5 eV  f(E) = 10 –129
e kT 1 • Exponential dependence has HUGE effect!

T=0K Moderate T High T

• At T = 0 K, electrons have 100% probability to be below Fermi energy EF and

0% probability above EF. At T > 0 K, probabilities decrease below EF and
increase above EF, causing the step function to “smear out.”
PhysFermi : http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/semicon/fermi/functionAndStates/functionAndStates.html
320 - Baski Page 13
 Band Diagram: Metal
“Fill” the energy band Fermi “filling” Energy band to
with electrons. function be “filled”
EC,V EC,V

EF EF

T=0K Moderate T

• At T = 0, energy levels below EF are filled with electrons, while all levels
above EF are empty.
• Electrons are free to move into “empty” states of conduction band with only
a small electric field E, leading to high electrical conductivity!
• At T > 0, electrons have a probability to be thermally “excited” from below
the Fermi energy to above it.
Phys 320 - Baski Page 14
 Band Diagram: Insulator with large Egap

Conduction band
T>0
(Empty)
EC
Egap
EF

Valence band
EV
(Filled)

• At T = 0, lower valence band is filled with electrons and upper conduction

band is empty, leading to zero conductivity.
– Fermi energy EF is at midpoint of large energy gap (2-10 eV) between
conduction and valence bands.
• At T > 0, electrons are NOT thermally “excited” from valence to conduction
band, leading to zero conductivity.

Phys 320 - Baski Page 15

 Band Diagram: Semiconductor with moderate Egap

T>0
Conduction band
(Partially Filled)
EC
EF
EV
Valence band
(Partially Empty)

• At T = 0, valence band is filled with electrons and conduction band is

empty, leading to zero conductivity.
• At T > 0, electrons thermally “excited” from valence to conduction band,
leading to partially empty valence and partially filled conduction bands.

What happens to the conductivity for T > 0?

How
Phys 320would
- Baski the band diagram look for lower & higher temperatures? Page 16
 Band Diagram: Donor Dopant in Semiconductor
• Increase the conductivity of a semiconductor by adding a small amount of
another material called a dopant (instead of heating it!)
• For group IV Si, add a group V element
to “donate” an electron and make n-type
Si (more negative electrons!)
n-type Si
• “Extra” electrons donated from donor EC
energy level ED just below EC. ED
EF
– Resultant electrons in conduction
band increase conductivity by EV
increasing free carrier density n.
• Fermi level EF moves up because there
are more carriers.

Fermi
Phys 320 Function
- Baski & Doping: http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/semicon/fermi/bandAndLevel/fermi.html
Page 17
 Band Diagram: Acceptor Dopant in Semiconductor

• For Si, add a group III element to “accept”

an electron and make p-type Si (more
positive “holes”!)
• “Missing” electrons trapped in acceptor EC
energy level EA just above EV.
EF EA
– Resultant holes in valence band
EV
increase conductivity.
• Fermi level EF moves down because there p-type Si
are fewer carriers.

Will the Fermi level move if the temperature is changed?

Phys 320 - Baski Page 18

 Semiconductor: Dopant Density via Hall Effect
• Why Useful? Determines carrier type (electron vs. hole) and
carrier density n for a semiconductor.
• How? Place semiconductor into external B field, push current along one
axis, and measure induced Hall voltage VH along perpendicular axis.

Carrier density n = (current I) (magnetic field B)

(carrier charge q) (thickness t)(Hall voltage VH)

• Derived from Lorentz equation FE (qE) = FB (qvB).

  
Hole FB  qv  B Electron
+ charge – charge

Phys 320 - Baski Page 19

 pn Junction: Band Diagram
pn regions “touch” & free carriers
• At equilibrium, Fermi levels move
(or charge carrier densities) n-type electrons
must equalize. EC
EF
• Hence, electrons move from n
EF
to p-side (diffusion process).
EV
• Depletion zone occurs at p-type
junction where immobile
charged ion cores remain.
pn regions in equilibrium
• Results in a built-in electric
field (103 to 105 V/cm), which –––
EC ++–– –
opposes further diffusion. EF + + –
+ ++–––
+ ++––
++
EV
Depletion Zone
PIN 320
Phys junction:
- Baskihttp://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/pin/pin/# Page 20
 pn Junction: I-V Characteristics

• Current-Voltage Relationship

I  I o [eeV / kT  1] Forward
Bias
• Forward Bias: current
exponentially increases.
• Reverse Bias: low leakage
current equal to ~Io. Reverse
Bias
• “Rectifying” pn junction passes
current in only one direction!

Phys 320 - Baski Page 21

 PN Junction: Band Diagram under Bias
• Forward Bias: negative voltage on n-side decreases built-in junction
potential  higher current of (majority) electrons from n to p-side.
• Reverse Bias: positive voltage on n-side increases junction potential
 only very low current of (minority) electrons from p to n-side.
Equilibrium Forward Bias Reverse Bias

p-type n-type p-type n-type p-type n-type

–V +V

e– e–
Majority Carriers Minority Carriers
Phys 320 - Baski Page 22
 PN Devices: LED and Solar Cell
• Light-emitting diode (LED)
– Converts electrical input to light output: electron in  photon out
– Light source with long life, low power, compact design.
– Applications: traffic and car lights, large displays.
• Solar Cell
– Converts light input to electrical output: photon in  electron out
(generated electrons are “swept away” by E field of pn junction)
– Renewable energy source!

LED Solar Cell

Phys 320 - Baski Page 23

 Devices: LED Colors
• 1976 CIE Chromaticity Diagram: characterizes colors by a luminance
parameter Y and two color coordinates x and y shown below.
• White light can be created using yellow and blue LED’s.

0.9 520 nm = GREEN

Daylight
530
0.8 540 Incandescent
510
0.7 550
560
0.6
570 nm = YELLOW
500
0.5 580
590
0.4 BLUE
5000 600
GREEN 3000 2000 K 610
0.3 490 640 nm = RED
WHITE
10,000
0.2 20,000

0.1 480 PURPLE

0.0 470 460 nm = BLUE
Phys 320 - Baski 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Page 24
 Devices: Light-related
• Three major methods for light to interact with a material:
– Absorption: incoming photon creates electron-hole pair (solar cell).
– Spontaneous Emission: electron-hole pair spontaneously decays to
eject photon (LED).
– Stimulated Emission: incoming photon stimulates electron-hole pair to
decay and eject another photon, i.e. one photon in  two photons out
(LASER).
hc
Energy  E2  E1

E2
1 2
1 1
2
2 3
E1
Absorption Spontaneous Stimulated
Emission Emission
Phys 320 - Baski Page 25
 Devices: LASER
LASER = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

• Laser creates inverted

population of electrons in
upper energy levels and then
stimulates them to all GaAs Laser
coherently decay to lower
energy levels.

• Applications: fiber optics, CD player, machining, medicine, etc.

– e.g. GaAs laser: 25% efficiency, 100 yr lifetime, mm size, IR to visible

Phys 320 - Baski Page 26