SOCIAL AND

PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT

Management Sciences Department-BUKC

 PSYCHOLOGY

MISCONCEPTIONS
Psychology is about fixing crazy people!!!

Both Psychologists and Psychiatrists are same thing!!!

Psychology isn’t for everyone!!!

FILEDS WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY

• Clinical Psychology
• Organizational Psychology
• School Psychology
• Social Psychology
Terms & Differences

• Counselor
• Psychologist
• Organizational Psy.
Phineas Gage (1823-1860)
 What is Psychology?

From the Greek language, psyche (mind) and logos (study).

Definition: “The scientific study of behavior and mental processes”

– Behavior can be directly observed, such as crying. It is an observable

action that is observable by others.
Examples of behavior include singing, smoking, eating, running, sitting, la
ughing, jumping, and any other type of behavior a person can do.

– Mental Processes cannot be directly observed, such as remembering,

praying (in heart), dreaming, thinking, etc.
Goals of psychology
1. OBSERVE: Watch a person’s behavior

2. DESCRIBE: Record specific behavior under certain conditions

3. EXPLAIN: Give reasons for the behavior

4. PREDICT: Determine how a person will behave/respond in a certain situation based on

previous O.D.E. (observation, description, explanation)

5. CONTROL: Change the behavior or mental process by assisting/teaching the patient

ways of coping or keeping anxiety under control
Famous Psychologists
Famous Psychologists
 Erik Erikson

• Erikson was an ego psychologist. He emphasized the

role of culture and society and the conflicts that ca
n take place within the ego itself.

• According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successf

ully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature.
These involve establishing a sense of trust in others,
developing a sense of identity in society, and helping
the next generation prepare for the future.
Erikson’s Life-Span Development Theory

 Development proceeds in stages

 Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial
challenge or crisis
 Stages reflect the motivation of the individual
 Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Human Development

8 - Integrity vs. despair

7 - Generativity vs. stagnation
6 - Intimacy vs. isolation- Love
5 - Identity vs. identity confusion- Fidelity
4 - Industry vs. inferiority- Virtue (Competence)
3 - Initiative vs. guilt - Virtue(Purpose)
2 - Autonomy vs. shame /doubt – Virtue (Will)
1 - Trust vs. mistrust – Virtue (Hope)
Erikson’s Human Development Stages

1 - Trust vs. Mistrust Developed through

0–1 year consistent love and
2 - Autonomy vs. support
Shame and Doubt
Independence fostered
2–3 years
by support and
encouragement
3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
4–5 years Developed by exploring
and accepting challenges
Erikson’s Human Development Stages

4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

6 years–12 (puberty) Mastery comes from success
and recognition
5 - Identity vs. Role
Confusion (13-18) Exploration of different paths
Adolescence to attain a healthy identity

6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation Form positive, close

(19-40) relationships with others
Early adult years
Erikson’s Human Development Stages

7 - Generativity vs.
Stagnation (41-64) Transmitting something
Middle Adulthood positive to the next
generation

8 - Integrity vs. Despair Life review and

(65-65+) retrospective evaluation of
Late Adulthood one’s past
Strategies for Erikson’s Stages of Development

• Initiative
 Encourage social play
 Have children assume responsibility
 Structure assignments for success
• Industry
 Nourish motivation for mastery
 Be tolerant of honest mistakes
• Identity
 Recognize that identity is multidimensional
 Encourage independent thinking
 Stimulate students to examine different perspectives
 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 0–1 year
Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?

 Erikson's first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year

 The crisis is of trust vs. mistrust
 During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve
these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for
stability and consistency of care.
 If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop
a sense of trust which will be carried with them to other relationships, and they will
be able to feel secure even when threatened.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.
 By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there
is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.
 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 0–1 year

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.

For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and un
reliable, then the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have con
fidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationshi
ps. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over-feeling of mi
strust in the world around them.
 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (2-3 years)
Is It Okay to Be Me?

 As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor

abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings.
 The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child
can venture out to assert their will.
 The parents' patience and encouragement help foster autonomy in
the child.
 Children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are
constantly learning about their environment.
 Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things
that are dangerous to their health and safety.
 At this age children develop their first interests.
 For example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio.
Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (2–3 years)
Is It Okay to Be Me?
 Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to
instill in the child a sense of doubt and reluctance to
attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular
coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of
satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed
themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the
bathroom.

 If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers

develop a sense of autonomy—a sense of being able to
handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers
demand too much too soon, refuse to let children
perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early
attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop
shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
 3. Initiative vs. Guilt(4–5 years)
Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?

 Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and

performing a task for the sake of just being active and on the move.
 The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic
skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things
roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease.
 At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions
for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty
over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilty
when this initiative does not produce desired results.
 The development of courage and independence are what set
preschoolers apart from other age groups. Young children in this category
face the challenge of initiative versus guilt.
 During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for
leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child
in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street
alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both of these involve self-limits.
 3. Initiative vs. Guilt(4–5 years)
Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?

 Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative
behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of
frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may
engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive
to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting or
yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage.
 Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and
can start new things. With this growing independence comes many
choices about activities to be pursued.
 Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at
other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or
that interfere with other people's plans and activities.
 If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's
efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices,
children develop initiative-independence in planning and undertaking
activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent
activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt
about their needs and desires.
 4. Industry vs. inferiority
(6–12 years)
Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?

 The aim is to bring a productive situation to completion gradually replaces

the impulses and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are
developed.
 The failure to master trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the
child to doubt his or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of
defeat and inferiority.
 "Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals."
They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right." They
are now more reasonable to share and cooperate.
 Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways.
They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar and
time.
 At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills:
reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize
cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their
personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance. At this stage, children
might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient
and rebellious.
 4. Industry vs. inferiority
(6–12 years)
Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?
 Erikson viewed the elementary school  years as critical for the development
of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to
achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things
- drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on.
 If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for
their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being
diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before
pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if
they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents'
expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.
 At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to
discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to
do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know
they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not
allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a
sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy.
 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
(13 to 18 years)
Who Am I?

 Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the

future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The
individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

 This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn

the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the
adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he
or she is.

 According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a
reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s
appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent
changes.

 Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their
body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
(13 to 18 years)
Who Am I?
 Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the
basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological
differences.

 During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their
own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to
establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want
to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion.

 Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about

themselves or their place in society.

 In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may

begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or
political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can
result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and
in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Occurring in young adulthood (ages 19 to 40 years), we begin to

share ourselves more intimately with others.

 We explore relationships leading toward longer term

commitments with someone other than a family member.

 Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable

relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within
a relationship.

 Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead

to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of love.
 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

 During middle adulthood (ages 41 to 64 years), we establish our

careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own
families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger
picture.

 We give back to society through raising our children, being

productive at work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations.

 By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and

feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of care.
 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

 As we grow older (above 65 years) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow
down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person.

 It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to
develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

 Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilty about our
past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied
with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person
to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also
accept death without fear.
Summary Video Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ
 Social Contexts and
Socioemotional Development

Social Contexts
of Development

Families Peers Schools

 Parenting Styles
Neglectful
Parents are uninvolved. Children
have poor self-control, don’t
handle independence well, and
low achievement motivation.
Indulgent
Parents are highly involved but
set few restrictions. Children
have poor self-control.
Authoritarian
Parents are restrictive and
punitive. Children tend to be
socially incompetent, anxious,
and exhibit poor communication
skills.
Authoritative
Parents are nurturing and
supportive, yet set limits.
Children are self-reliant, get along
with peers, and have high self-
esteem.
 Authoritative

Parenting Characteristics Associated Outcome

Warm and responsive Higher Academic Performance
Clear rules More Self-Esteem
High expectation Better Social Skills
Supportive Less Mental Illness
Value independence Lower Delinquency
 Authoritarian

Parenting Characteristics Associated Outcome

Unresponsive Lower Academic Performance
Strict Rules Less Self-Esteem
High Expectation Poorer Social Skills
Expect Blind Obedience Mental Illness
Drug/Alcohol Abuse
Delinquency
Permissive/Indulgent

Parenting Characteristics Associated Outcome

Warm and responsive Impulsive Behavior
Few or No Rules Egocentric
Indulgent Poorer Social Skills
Lenient Problematic Relationship
 Neglectful

Parenting Characteristics Associated Outcome

Cold and Unresponsive Impulsive Behavior
No Rules Delinquency
Uninvolved Drug or Alcohol Abuse
Indifferent Suicides
 The Changing Family
Working parents
 Nature of parents’ work matters
Children in divorced families
 The quality of parental relationships, timing of divorce, use of support
systems, type of custody, quality of schooling; all affect children.
 According to a research, elementary school children did best when the
parent and the school environment were authoritative.
Children in step families
 Show more adjustment problems than children in intact families,
especially during adolescence
Ethnic and Socio-economic Variations in Fa
milies

Minority students
Low-income parents
Ethnic and Socio-economic Variations in Families

Middle-class families
 Often place high value on internal characte
ristics such as self-control and delayed gratif
ication.
 View education as a mutual responsibility.