Memory

Definition
• “The process by which we encode, store and retrieve
memory.”

• Encoding: Initial recording of information

• Storage: Information saved for future use

• Retrieval: Recovery of stored information

 Modal Model of the Mind

• Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration

Maintenance Rehearsal

Attention Encoding
Sensory Sensory Working or Long-term
Memory Short-term memory
Input Memory Retrieval
 Sensory Memory Store

• Capacity - large
Sensory • can hold many items at once

Sensory • Duration - very brief retention

Input Memory of images
• .3 sec for visual info (Iconic Memory)
• 2 sec for auditory info (Echoic
Memory)
• Process - Sensory memory
forms automatically, without
attention or interpretation
Working Memory Store

Attention
Sensory Sensory Working or
Memory Short-term
Input Memory
Working Memory Store

• Function - conscious processing of information

• where information is actively processed and made meaningful and
workable.
• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)

Attention
Sensory Sensory Working or
Memory Short-term
Input Memory
 Long-Term Memory Store

• Function - organizes and stores information

• more passive form of storage than working memory
• Unlimited Capacity
• Duration - thought by some to be permanent

Maintenance Rehearsal

Attention Encoding
Sensory Sensory Working or Long-term
Memory Short-term memory
Input Memory Retrieval
 Maintenance Rehearsal

• Mental or verbal repetition of information

Allows information to remain in working memory longer

than the usual 30 seconds

Maintenance rehearsal

Sensory Attention
Sensory Working or
Memory Short-term
Input Memory
Long-Term Memory Store

• Encoding - process that controls movement

from working to long-term memory store
• Retrieval - process that controls flow of
information from long-term to working memory
store
Ways of Encoding or Remembering

• Three Ways
• Rehearsal
• Organization
• Elaboration
Rehearsal
• Simple repetition of information
• Example
• Daily repeating the previous lesson
Organization

• Chunking
• Hierarchical organization

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Chunking
• Grouping small bits of information into larger units of
information or breaking large information in to pieces
• Chunking expands working memory i.e., increase its storage
capacity

• Which one is easier to remember?

• 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6

• 483 792 516

Hierarchical Organization

• Categorizing the topic in to sub-topics or

sub-sub topics etc.
• It’s easy to remember large information this
way.
• Human brain can save information more
easily and effectively if it is organized in the
form of charts or categories.
Hierarchical Organization
Elaboration
• Elaboration means:
• Focusing on meaning of information to encode
it into LTM
• Not simply repeating items over and over
• Linking item to other info in memory
• Actively question new information
• Generate own examples of concepts
• Don’t just highlight passage as you read, focus
on the ideas in the text
Forgetting Theories
• Encoding failure
• Role of time
• Interference theories
Forgetting as Encoding Failure

• Information not properly encoded into LTM

X
Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
• Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures
• Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it

X
Role of Time : Decay Theory

• Memories fade away or decay gradually if

unused
• Time plays critical role
• Ability to retrieve info declines with time after
original encoding
 Interference Theories
• “Memories interfering with memories”
• Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
• Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another
memory
Two Types of Interference

T y p e s o f in t e r fe r e n c e

R e t r o a c t iv e P r o a c t iv e
In te r fe r e n c e In t e r fe r e n c e
Retroactive Interference
• When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD
information

• Examples
• When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old
phone number.
• With new language you tend to forget old language
• New subject you remember but forgets the related old one
Proactive Interference

• Opposite of retroactive interference

• When an OLD memory interferes
with remembering NEW
information

• Example
• Memories of where you parked your
car on campus the past week
interferes with ability find car today
Retrieval Cue Theories
• Retrieval Cue
• a clue, prompt or hint that can help memory retrieval
• Forgetting is the result of using improper
retrieval cues.
• Cue can be a word, abbreviation, picture,
diagram or sound etc.
Context-Dependent Memory
• Memory depends on Context or situation
• If same situation comes again in which you studied
previously, you will likely remember more information
• Better recall if tested in classroom where you initially
learned information than if moved to a new classroom

• Example
• If learning room smells of chocolate, people will recall
more info if tested in room with the same smell
compared to different smell or no smell at all
State-Dependent Effects
• Mood or emotions also a factor for
memory
• Bipolar depressives
• Information learned in happy mood can be
recalled better if testing or exam occur in
happy or relaxed situation
• Information learned in depressed mood, recall
more if testing or exam occurs during
depressed state
Long-term Memory Systems

L o n g -te rm M e m o ry

E x p lic it M e m o r y Im p lic it M e m o r y

E p is o d i c S e m a n t ic P ro c e d u ra l C l a s s ic a l P r i m in g
M e m o ry M e m o ry M e m o ry C o n d it io n i n g
Subtypes of Explicit Memory

E x p li c i t M e m o r y

E p is o d ic M e m o r y S e m a n t ic M e m o r y
Episodic Memory
• Memory related to your own personal experiences

• Examples:
• what did you have for dinner?
• do you like to eat apples?

• Why are these explicit memories?

• Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions

Semantic Memory
• “Memory not related to personal events”
• I.e., General facts and definitions about the world

• Examples:
• who was George Washington?
• what is a cloud?
• what is the climate at the north pole?
• These are explicit memories because you can describe what you know
about them.
• Unlike episodic memories, Here your knowledge does NOT include your
personal experience
• i.e., You may never have been to the USA but you know about it.
Implicit Memory
• Also known as nondeclarative/hidden memory

• Influences your thoughts or behavior, but is unconcious

Subtypes of Implicit Memory

I m p li c i t M e m o r y

C la s s ic a l P ro c e d u ra l P r im in g
C o n d it io n in g M e m o ry
Classical Conditioning

• “Automatic activation of
different processes in our
body”
• Implicit because it is
automatically retrieved
Procedural Memory

• Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or

habitual responses
• Examples:
• Riding a bike
• How to speak grammatically
• Tying your shoe laces
• Why are these procedural memories implicit?
• Can’t readily describe their contents
• try describing how to tie your shoes
• They are automatically retrieved when appropriate
Priming
• Priming is influence of one memory on another

• priming is implicit because it does not depend on

awareness and is automatic

• Here is a demonstration
Priming Demonstration

• Unscramble the following

words:
•O R E S  ROSE
•L T E P A  PETAL
•K T A L S  STALK
• TSME  STEM
•L O B S O M S  BLOSSOM
• ELAF
Improving Memory
• 1. Focus your attention on the materials you are studying.
• Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music and
other diversions.

• Brain Training Games improve memory with scientifically designed brain

exercises.www.lumosity.com

• 2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.

• According to Bjork (2001), studying materials over a number of session's
gives you the time you need to adequately process the information.
Research has shown that students who study regularly remember the
material far better than those who do all of their studying in one marathon
session.
Improving Memory
• 6. Relate new information to things you already know.
• When you are studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this
information relates to things that you already know. By establishing relationships
between new ideas and previously existing memories, you can dramatically increase
the likelihood of recalling the recently learned information.
• 7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.
• Many people benefit greatly from visualizing the information they study. Pay attention to
the photographs, charts and other graphics in your textbooks. If you do not have visual
cues to help, try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes
or use highlighters or pens in different colors to group related ideas in your written
study materials.

• 8. Teach new concepts to another person.

• Research suggests that reading materials out loud significantly improves memory of
the material. Educators and psychologists have also discovered that having students
actually teach new concepts to others enhances understanding and recall. You can use
this approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend
or study partner.
Improving Memory
• 3. Structure and organize the information you are studying.

• 4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.

• Mnemonic devices are a technique often used by students to aid in recall. A mnemonic is
simply a way to remember information. For example, you might associate a term you
need to remember with a common item that you are very familiar with..

• 5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are studying.

Improving Memory

• 9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.

• Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember information at the beginning
or end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the order of information can play a role in
recall, which is known as the serial position effect. While recalling middle information can be
difficult, you can overcome this problem by spending extra time rehearsing this information.
Another strategy is to try restructuring what you have learned so it will be easier to
remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept, devote some extra time to
memorizing the information.

• 10. Vary your study routine.

• Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you
are accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot during
your next study session. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each
morning reviewing the information you studied the previous night. By adding an element of
novelty to your study sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of your efforts and
significantly improve your long-term recall.