Introduction to the Endocrine System

Goals and Objectives

The students should be familiar with

1. essential features of endocrine system
2. feedback regulation

For each hormone, the student should know:

• Its origin
• Its chemical nature
• Its principal physiological actions
• Which signals or conditions influence its secretion
• Related Disorders and Drugs

1-2
Hormones are Messenger Molecules

Chemicals produced in one part of the body (endocrine glands) and carried in the blood to
other parts of the body, where they stimulate or depress activity of cells and tissues

Autocrine effect : Hormones that act on the cells that secrete them
 Endocrine hormones

Produced by endocrine (“ductless”)

glands and secreted into the bloodstream.

Many tissues besides the endocrine glands

secretes chemical signals that act as
hormones (stomach, intestines, heart,
immune cells, liver, skin, glial cells)

e.g.
Kidneys produce several hormones that
regulate blood pressure, which is essential
for kidney function. Kidneys also produce
erythropoietin
to regulate red blood cell production.

The digestive system produces several

hormones that regulate appetite.
Fat cells (adipocytes) produce Leptin to
control appetite.
Leptin, is a hormone produced by adipocytes.
Its synthesis is increased by insulin,
glucocorticoids and estrogens and inhibited The obese mouse on the left does not produce
by beta-2 agonists. enough leptin (genetically deficient).

The mouse is obese because its low leptin levels

give it an enormous appetite. Leptin injections
return the mouse’s weight to normal.

Humans sometimes have a leptin issue too, but

the problem is a bad leptin receptor on body
cells, and leptin injections will not cure that.
Endocrine hormones

Three types of hormones : amine, peptide and steroid

Amine : Adrenaline, Noradrenaline, Melatonin, …

Peptide : Hypothalamic releasing/inhibiting hormones, Oxytocin, ADH, …

Steroid : Cortisol, Aldosterone, Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone, Calcitriol

Peptide Hormones
All Hypothalamic releasing/inhibiting
hormones, GH, TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH,
MSH, Prolactin , Parathormone, Insulin,
Glucagon, Somatostatin, Calcitonin,
Oxytocin, ADH
•Peptide hormones are water soluble
and can not enter the cells directly.
These hormones bind to their receptors
located on the cell membrane.
•When the hormone binds with the
receptor protein, a second messenger
molecule initiates the cell response.
•They often produce fast responses.
Steroid Hormones
Aldosterone, Calcitriol, Testosterone, Estrogen,
Progesterone, T3 & T4
• Steroid hormones are lipid soluble, enter
through the cell membrane and bind to
receptors inside of the target cell (in the
cytoplasm or nucleus).
• They directly stimulate transcription of genes to
make certain proteins.
• Because steroids work by triggering gene
activity, their response is slower than peptide
hormones.
Role of the Hypothalamus
• The thalamus receives sensory information from
periphery, relays some of them to the
hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus monitors the body for
temperature, pH, other conditions.
• Hypothalamus signals pituitary gland if
conditions need to be corrected by appropriate
hormones.
Hormones Released from
Hypothalamus
GH releasing hormone (GHRH)
GH inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
Corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH)
Gonadotropic releasing hormone (GnRH)
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH or dopamine)
Dopamine for inhibition of MSH
Role of the Pituitary (Hypophysis)

• The pituitary is the “master gland” that signals Hypothalamic H

other glands to produce their hormones when
needed.
• The anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
receives signals from the hypothalamus, and Pituitary H
responds by sending out the appropriate
hormone to other endocrine glands.
• The posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
receives oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Endocrine H
from the hypothalamus, transfer them to the
body as necessary.
Pituitary Hormone Functions
Adrenocorticotropic H. Stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol.

Thyroid-stimulating H. Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxine.

Growth H. Stimulates growth during infancy and puberty.

Antidiuretic H. Signals the kidney to conserve more water.

Oxytocin Influences childbirth, lactation, and some behaviors.

Melanocyte-stimulating H. Stimulates synthesis of skin pigments.

Follicle-stimulating H. Stimulates egg maturation in the ovary and release of sex hormones.
Gland Hormones Functions

Adrenal cortex Epinephrine Stimulates “fight or flight” response.

Adrenal medulla Glucocorticoids Part of stress response, increase blood glucose levels
(≈ 30 hormones) and decrease immune response.

Aldosterone Regulates sodium content in the blood.

Testosterone (in both sexes) Adult body form (greater muscle mass), libido, etc.
Estrogens, Progesteron
Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolism

Calcitonin Inhibits release of calcium from the bones

Parathyroids Parathyroid H. Stimulates the release of calcium from the bones.

Gland Hormones Functions
Islet cells (in the Insulin Decreases blood sugar by promoting uptake of glucose by
pancreas) cells.
Glucagon Increases blood sugar by stimulating breakdown of glycogen
in the liver.
Testes Testosterone Regulates sperm cell production and secondary sex
characteristics.
Ovaries Estrogen Stimulates egg maturation, controls secondary sex
characteristics.
Progesterone Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg.

Pineal gland Melatonin Sleep cycles, reproductive cycles in many mammals.

Negative feedback Hypothalamus TRH
is the primary
mechanism through
which endocrine system (-)
maintains homeostasis Anterior pituitary TSH
Secretion of a specific
hormone is turned on or
off by specific
physiological changes Thyroid gland T3, T4
(similar to a thermostat)

Target organs
Physiologic Interactions

Hormone –Receptor Interactions

Down-regulation
decrease in target cell receptors when excessive hormone is present
Up-regulation
increase in target cell receptors when there is a deficiency of hormone

Hormone-Hormone Interactions
Synergistic Effect
Two hormones acting together have a greater or more extensive effect.
Antagonistic Effect
One hormone opposes the action of another hormone.
Temperature Control
Blood Calcium Homeostazis

Calcitonin and Parathyroid Hormone

works together for regulation of
blood calcium concentration
Calcitonin from the thyroid inhibits
calcium release from the bones
Parathyroid hormone stimulates
release of calcium from the bones.
Insulin and Glucagon
from pancreas work together
to control blood sugar levels

Insulin lowers blood glucose

by stimulating body cells to
take up glucose.
Glucagon increases blood
sugar by stimulating the liver
to break down glycogen into
glucose.