Bipolar Junction Transistor

Figure 7—1
External control of the current in a reverse-biased p-n junction:
(a) optical generation; (b) junction I–V characteristics as a
function of EHP generation; (c) minority carrier injection by a
hypothetical device.
Figure 7—2
A p-n-p transistor: (a) schematic representation of a p-n-p
device with a forward-biased emitter junction and a reverse-
biased collector junction; (b) I–V characteristics of the
reverse-biased n-p junction as a function of emitter current.
Most of the times, it is always preferred to understand the operation of a
pnp transistor first and then translate the understanding to an npn
transistor.
Have you ever seen a real transistor ?
Here is a picture for you !!!
from a transistor structure
Amplification with BJTs

Transistor is useful in amplifiers because the currents

at the emitter and collector are controllable by the
relatively small base current.
Neglecting the saturation current at the collector and
such effects as recombination in the transition regions.
Under these circumstances, the collector current is
made up entirely of those holes injected at the emitter,
which are not lost to recombination in the base.
Amplification with BJTs (Contd.)

Thus IC is proportional to the hole component of

the emitter current iEP :
Ic = B iEp . Here, B is simply the fraction of
injected holes, which make it across the base to
the collector and is called the base transport
factor.
Amplification with BJTs (Contd.)
Total emitter current iE is made up of the hole
component iEp and the electron component iEn
due to electrons injected from base to emitter .
The emitter injection efficiency

 = iEp / (i En + iEp)
ic/ iE= BiEP/ (i En + iEp) =α
Figure 7—3
Summary of hole and electron flow in a p-n-p transistor with proper biasing: (1) injected holes
lost to recombination in the base; (2) holes reaching the reverse-biased collector junction; (3)
thermally generated electrons and holes making up the reverse saturation current of the
collector junction; (4) electrons supplied by the base contact for recombination with holes; (5)
electrons injected across the forward-biased emitter junction.
Figure 7—4
Example of amplification in a common-emitter transistor circuit: (a)
biasing circuit; (b) addition of an a-c variation of base current ib to the d-
c value of IB, resulting in an a-c component ic.
Figure 7—6
Simplified p-n-p transistor geometry used in the
calculations.
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents
We assume that the holes are injected into the
base at the forward biased emitter and these
holes diffuse to the collector junction.
The first step is to solve for the excess hole
distribution in the base
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents (Contd.)
Second step is to evaluate the emitter and
collector currents ( IE, IC) from the gradient of
the hole distribution on each side of the base.
Then the base current ( IB ) can be found from a
current summation or from a charge control
analysis of recombination in the base.
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)
Assumptions : 1. Holes diffuse from emitter to
collector ; drift is negligible in the base region.
The emitter current is made up entirely of holes;
the emitter injection efficiency is  = 1.
The collector saturation current is negligible.
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents (Contd.)
The active part of the base and the two junctions
are of uniform cross sectional area A; current
flow in the base is essentially one dimensional
from emitter to collector.
All currents and voltages are steady state.
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)
Since the injected holes are assumed to flow from
emitter to collector by diffusion, we can evaluate the
currents crossing the two junctions.
Neglecting recombination in the two depletion
regions, the hole current entering the base at the
emitter junction is the current I E, and the hole current
leaving the base at the collector is IC.
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)
If , we can solve for the distribution of excess
holes in the base region, it is simple to evaluate
the gradient of the distribution at the two ends of
the base to find the currents. The excess hole
concentration at the emitter depletion region ΔpE
and the corresponding concentration on the
collector side of the base ΔpC are found from
equations
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)
ΔpE = pn ( eqVEB / kT – 1)
ΔpC = pn ( eqVCB / kT – 1)
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)

Where Lp is the Diffusion Length of Holes in the

Base Region.
*Since Wb<<Lp in a Properly Designed
Transistor and hence most of the injected holes
reach the collector at Wb .So, we can not simply
ignore one of the constants.
Minority carrier distributions and
Terminal currents ( Contd.)

Δ
Evaluation of the Terminal
Currents
on

2
Evaluation of the Terminal
Currents (Contd.)
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 and after
simplification, the Emitter current and Collector current
can be written as
Dp Wb Wb
I Ep  qA (p E coth  pc cos ech )
Lp Lp Lp

Dp Wb Wb
I c  qA (p E cos ech  pc coth )
Lp Lp Lp
Evaluation of the Terminal
Currents (Contd.)
*If
I E  I Ep And
  1 Then Base Current is given by
Dp
I B  I E  I c  qA [(p E  pc ) tanh Wb ]
Lp 2L p
IB, IC and IE are called Terminal Currents.Depends upon
Material Parameters, the Base width and Excess Carrier
Concentrations. The Excess Carrier Conc. Depends Upon
the BIAS VOLTAGE.
Approximations of the
terminal Currents
Now, if we have to find the expressions for values
of currents, when transistor is biased, then the
equations will need modification.

Likewise, if the collector is reverse biased,

then Δpc = -pn . Also if equilibrium hole
concentration pn is small, we can neglect
the terms involving Δpc.
Switching

Ideally a switch should appear as short circuit, when

turned on and an open circuit, when turned off.
Furthermore, it is desirable to switch the device from
one state to the other with no time loss in between.
Transistors do not fit this ideal description of a switch,
but they can serve as a useful approximation in
practical electronic circuits.
Switching (Contd.)
*The two states of a transistor can be seen in
the simple common emitter example as shown
in the next slide.

*If iB is such that the operating point lies

somewhere between the two end points of the
load line, the transistor operates in the normal
active mode. That is the emitter junction is
forward biased and the collector is reverse
biased, with a reasonable value of iB flowing
out of the base.
Simple switching circuit for a transistor in the CE configuration
(a) Biasing circuit . (b) Collector characteristics and load line for the
circuit, with cutoff and saturation.
Switching (Contd.)

On the other hand, if the base current is zero or

negative , the point C is reached at the bottom end of
the load line and the collector current is negligible.
This is the off state of the transistor, and the device is
said to be operating in the cutoff regime.
Switching (Contd.)

If the base current is positive and sufficiently large

the device is driven to the saturation regime marked
S.
This is the on state of the transistor, in which a large
value of of iC flows with only a small voltage drop
vCE.
Cutoff:
If the base emitter voltage is zero or reverse biased
( VBE < = 0 ), then majority carrier holes will not be
injected into the base. The base collector junction
is also reverse biased, thus the emitter and collector
currents will be zero for this case. This condition is
referred to as cutoff – all currents in the transistor
are zero.
 Cut off ( contd.)

In this condition, we can approximate the excess

hole concentrations at the edges of the reverse
biased emitter and collector junctions
As we know
Δp E = Δ pC ~ -1
ΔpE = pn ( eqVEB / kT – 1)
pn pn ΔpC = pn ( eqVCB / kT – 1)
Cut off ( contd.)

This implies p(xn) = 0. With a straight line

approximation, the excess hole distribution in the
base appears constant at –pn as shown in the next
slide.
The base current iB can be approximated for a
symmetrical transistor on a charge storage basis as
– q A pn Wb / p.
Cut off ( contd.)

Excess hole
concentration
in the base
region with
emitter and
collector
junctions
reverse
biased
 Saturation
• When do you observe it ?
• Excess hole distribution in the base of a
saturated transistor
Saturation :
The saturation regime begins, when the
reverse bias across the collector junction is
reduced to zero, and it continues as the
collector becomes forward biased.
The device is saturated, when ΔpC = 0 and
forward bias of the collector junction leads to
a positive ΔpC driving the device further into
saturation.
Excess hole
distribution in
the base of a
saturated
transistor
With the load line fixed by the battery and the 5 Kilo
ohm resistor in figure, the saturation is reached by
increasing the base current iB. In fig., the device has
just reached in saturation and the collector junction is
no longer reverse biased.
Since the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction has zero bias, very little voltage
drop appears across the device from collector to
emitter. The magnitude of – v CE is only a fraction of a
volt. Therefore, almost all of the battery voltage
appears across the resistor , and the collector current is
approximately 40V / 5 Kilo ohms = 8 mA.
In this saturation condition, the transistor
approximates the ‘on’ state of an ideal switch.
The switching cycle :
If the device is originally in the cutoff condition, a step
increase of base current to IB causes the hole
distribution to increase approximately as illustrated in
figure.
At time ts, the device enters saturation, and the hole
distribution reaches its final state at t2. As the stored
charge in the base Qb increases, there is an increase in
the collector current iC. The collector current does not
increase beyond its value at the beginning of saturation
ts, however.
We can approximate this saturated collector current as
IC ~ ECC / RL, where ECC is the value of the collector
circuit battery and RL is the load resistor. There is an
essentially exponential increase in the collector
current, while Qb rises to its value Qs at ts ; this rise
time serves as one of the limitations of the transistor in
a switching application.
Similarly, when the base current is switched
negative ( e.g. to the value – IB), the stored
charge must be withdrawn from the base
before cutoff is reached. While Qb is larger
than Qs, the collector current remains at the
value IC, fixed by the battery and resistor.
Thus, there is a storage delay time tsd after the base
current is switched and before i C begins to fall
toward zero. After the stored charge is reduced
below Qs, iC drops exponentially with the
characteristic fall time.
Non Uniform base doping

*For BJT analysis , Base Regions are Assumed to

be Linearly Doped.
•This is Rarely Possible.
•* For Implanted Junction Transistor this
Assumption Breaks Down.
*Let us Start with a Uniformly Doped n-Type
Substrate (Collector Region)
*Then Diffuse Acceptor Atoms from the Surface to
form a Compensated p-type BASE.
*Again Diffuse Donor Atoms from the Surface to form
a Doubly Compensated n-Type Emitter.
•The Whole Diffusion Process Result in Non Uniform
Doping.
•*Most Likely Doping Distribution in the Base is a
portion of a Gaussian.
* As we know that a Graded Impurity Concentration
leads to an induced Electric Field

Dn 1 dN ( xn ) KT 1 dN ( xn )
 ( x)   
 n N ( xn ) dxn q N ( xn ) dxn

Where N(xn) is Doping Profile that Decreases in the

positive xn- direction
Means the Electric field is Positive and directed from
Emitter to Collector.
Let us assume

axn

Wb
N ( xn )  N (0)e

Where a is Doping Constant =ln(N(0)/N(Wb)).

And Hence the Electric Field is

KT a
 ( xn ) 
q Wb
**For p-n-p Transistor,
Electrons Are Injected From Emitter into Base And
Minority Carrier Electrons in Base Begin Diffusing
Toward the Collector Region
*Due to Non-uniform Doping in the Base, the
INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD produces a Force on
the Electrons in the direction toward the Collector.
** This Induced Electric Field aids the Flow of the
Minority Carriers across the Base Region and Called
An ACCELERATING FIELD
•This Accelerating Field Will Produce a DRIFT
COMPONENT of the Current in Addition the Diffusion
Current.
•** Since the Minority Carrier Concentration Varies
across the Base, the Drift Current Density will not be
Constant.
•** The Induced Electric Field in the Base due to Non-
Uniform Doping will alter the Minority Carrier
Distribution through the Base and Hence,
•Drift Current + Diffusion Current will be Constant.
•**This Induced Field aids the Transport of Minority
Carriers Across the Base region and hence
**Transit Time (For non-uniform case) < Transit
Time (For Uniform Case)

** This Shortening of the Transit Time is Very

Important in High-Frequency Devices.
BASE NARROWING :
* Also called Base width modulation or Early effect
Reverse bias at CB junction

Extension of space charge layer more toward base

Reduction in effective base width

Talking of collector characteristics for CE configuration
Reduction in Wb

IC with collector voltage

* Length of collector junction depletion region can be estimated from

eqn already known , just by replacing Vo by Vo – VCB, where VCB
taken to be large and negative.
 Excess of reverse bias

Wb

Collector depletion region fills whole base

Holes may get directly swept from Emitter to collector

( Punch through condition)

Transistor action lost

** In most cases, however, avalanche breakdown of the collector
BASE NARROWING :
* Also called Base width modulation or Early effect
Reverse bias at CB junction

Extension of space charge layer more toward base

Reduction in effective base width

Talking of collector characteristics for CE configuration
Reduction in Wb

IC with collector voltage

* Length of collector junction depletion region can be estimated from

eqn already known , just by replacing Vo by Vo – VCB, where VCB
taken to be large and negative.
 Excess of reverse bias

Wb

Collector depletion region fills whole base

Holes may get directly swept from Emitter to collector

( Punch through condition)

Transistor action lost

** In most cases, however, avalanche breakdown of the collector
junction occurs before punch through is reached.
Avalanche breakdown
**Before Punch-through , In Most Transistor
Avalanche Multiplication at the Collector Junction
Becomes important.

Common Common
base emitter
configura configuration
tion
**In Each case the Terminal Collector Current is
Current Entering the Collector Depletion Region
Multiplied by Multiplication Factor M
Including multiplication Due to IMPACT IONIZATION
We have

Coming from relation :

M= 1
1- (V / Vbr ) n
 Kirk Effect

Cross section of p-n-p BJT

 Kirk Effect
Space charge distribution in the BC reverse
biased jn. for higher current levels
 Space charge distribution of the BC
junction for higher current levels.

Injected holes add to the space charge of the immobile donors on

the base side of the depletion region, but subtract from the space
charge of the immobile acceptors on the collector side. This leads
to a widening of the neutral base width from Wb to Wb’.
 Kirk Effect ( Contd.)
• As a result
– Current gain drops
– Increase in base transit time happens
 The EBERS-MOLL Model
• A simplified model for the operation of the
BJT

and

• A set of equations for describing its

behavior.
EBERS-Moll model as used
in SPICE
Frequency limitations of
transistors
High frequency Transistor
Possible solutions may be
Reduce the base width
Reduce the emitter and collector areas
Reduce the emitter, base and collector
resistances
High frequency Transistor

## Problem of lower power handling

capability

So, to overcome that a method of inter digitation is

suggested.
Heterojunction Bipolar
transistors
• Conventional requirement of light doping
of base leads to
– High base resistance
• Conventional requirement of heavy doping
of emitter leads to
– Slight shrinkage of Eg
Reduction in emitter injection efficiency may
happen
Heterojunction Bipolar
transistors
Heterojunction Bipolar
transistors
 Heterojunction Bipolar
transistors
• Since carrier injection varies exponentially
with the barrier height, even a small
difference in these two barriers can make
a very large difference in the transport of
electrons and holes across the emitter
junction,
So, one may feel free in choosing doping levels for
emitter and base. So, one can choose heavily doped
base to reduce the base resistance and a lightly doped
emitter to reduce junction capacitance.
Figure 7—27
Removal of the conduction band spike by grading the alloy
composition (x) in the heterojunction. In this example the junction is
graded from the composition used in the AIGaAs emitter to x = 0 at the
GaAs base. This grading typically takes place over a distance of 100 Å
or less.