4

1
 Prior Knowledge
 Electrical/Electronic Tools- session 3
 Basics of Mechanics of Machines
 Workshop Practice

2
 Contents
 Semiconductor Materials & Diodes
 PN Junction and barrier potential
 Forward and Reverse Biasing
 Types of Diodes
 PN Junction Diodes
 Diode Rectifiers
 Half-wave
 Full-wave
 Bridge Full-wave
 Smoothing Capacitor
 Zener Diodes
 PIN Diodes
 Photo Diodes
 Laser Diodes
 Schottky Diodes
 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
 Infrared Spectrum, Transmitter & Receiver Diodes
 Activities and LABs 3
Semiconductor Materials &
Diodes

4
 Semiconductor
 A semiconductor is a material product usually, which conducts
electricity more than an insulator, such as glass, but less than a pure
conductor, such as copper or aluminum.
 Their conductivity and other properties can be altered with the
introduction of impurities, called doping.
 There are two elements used for producing semiconductor materials:
 Silicon (most widely used)
 Germanium
 There are also two types of semiconductor materials produced from
these elements:
 P-type – formed by doping boron or gallium with silicon or germanium. It
creates the effect of positive charge.
 N-type – formed by doping phosphorus or arsenic with silicon or
germanium. It creates the effect of negative charge.

5
 PN Junction
 If P and N type semiconductors are pressed together, a
semiconductor junction is formed near the contact surfaces –
called PN junction
 PN junction is neutral (depletion layer) and there is no P or N
charge at the junction.
 P and N charges are separated by an insulator (depletion) layer
– forming potential difference (p.d) at the junction – called
barrier potential.
 This p.d. is 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium
Barrier PD

6
Depletion Layer
 PN Junction Diode
 A PN junction forms a Diode (two electrode device)
 A diode has two electrodes, anode or positive (+) electrode
and cathode or negative (-) electrode.
 Diode conducts only when anode is connected to positive and
cathode is connected to negative of an electrical source –
allows one way conduction only.
 A diode and its symbol is shown below.
 The cathode is identified by the silver band on that side as
shown

Demo
7
 Forward Biasing of A Diode

 Diode is said to be forward biased when P is

connected positive and N is connected to the
negative of a voltage source, then current
through the diode is called forward current.
 This diode conducts only during forward
bias. Forward Bias

 If the forward voltage is above the barrier

potential, the depletion layer collapses and
the diode conducts heavily
 The forward voltage for silicon diode is 0.7
volts and germanium it is 0.3 volts

8
 Reverse Biasing of A Diode
 Diode is said to be reverse biased when P is
connected negative and N is connected to
the positive of a voltage source and this
small leakage current through the diode is
called reverse current.
 In reverse bias, there is no evident flow of
the current. It indicates that current is Reverse Bias

blocked during reverse bias.

 When reverse biased, the depletion layer
expands, blocking the flow of current.

9
 Forward and Reverse
Characteristics of A Diode
 When forward voltage is above barrier
p.d (0.7 volts for silicon) the diode starts
conducting the current shoots up
depending upon the forward voltage.
 When reverse-biased, an ideal diode
would block all current. A real diode lets
perhaps 10 microamps through -- not a lot,
but still not perfect. And if you apply
enough reverse voltage (V), the junction
breaks down and current shoots up in
opposite direction. Usually, the breakdown Silicon Diode Characteristics
voltage is a lot more voltage.
10
 Diode Circuit and Forward Voltage
Drop
 When a diode is connected in forward
bias in series with a load resistor, the
forward voltage of 0.7/0.3 volts should
be taken into consideration

 E.g. in the diagram shown, if the diode is silicon type, to get the
voltage drop across the resistor, you have subtract 0.7 volt from
the supply volt of 5 volt
 This is very important when low voltage applications like 3.3
volt or 2 volts circuits are used.
 For each such diode, subtract forward drop of the diode
11
 Types of Diodes
 PN Junction Diode
 Zener Diode
 Photodiode
 Laser Diode
 Schottky Diode
 Bridge Rectifier
 Light Emitting Diode

12
 PN Junction Diodes
 These are utilized where the applications are preferred
for low currents such as signal diodes.
 One of the basic application of this as the rectifiers.
 1N4148 is the standard signal diode
 1N4001 a rectifier capable of 1 A and 50 V. If you
need higher voltages you can go for the 1N4002
through 1N4007, for 100 V and 1000 V respectively
 How to Test a Diode with a multimeter

Demo 13
 Diode Rectifiers
 All domestic and industrial power suppliers are AC
 But all electronic equipment work from DC only
 It is often required to convert power from AC to DC
 A rectifier is such a device that converts AC to DC
 Diodes are used as rectifiers
 There mainly two types of rectifiers:
 Half-wave
 Full-wave

14
 Practical AC
 All practical generators produce single or three phase
Alternating current (voltage)
 If we plot the instantaneous values of these current
(voltages) we will be getting a single or three sine wave
plots.

15
 Characteristics of AC
 As the values of AC current or voltage reaches zero value
twice in each cycle the connected lamp also becomes dim
twice in each cycle. If the frequency of AC is 50 Hz/sec, the
lamp dims 100 times every second.
 Our eyes cannot detect this because of the persistence of
vision of our eyes.

16
 Various Values of AC Sine Wave
 The continuously varying instantaneous values of AC is
not much useful for practical purpose. So we have to
identify the relation between the instantaneous value and
other values like peak value, average and root-mean-
square (RMS/effective) values of the sine wave.

 Vrms = 0.707 x Vpk

 Vavg = 0.637 x Vpk
 Vpk = 1.414 x Vrms
 Vpk-pk = 2 x Vpk

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 Various Values of AC Sine Wave
 Instantaneous value: Is the value (voltage or current) of a wave at any particular
instant.
 Peak Value: Is the highest value the wave reaches - Vpk = 1.414 x Vrms
 Peak-to-Peak Value: Is the highest value the wave from crest to root peak values -
Vpk-pk = 2 x Vpk
 Average Value: Is normally taken to mean the average value of only half a cycle of
the wave. If the average of the full cycle was taken it would of course be zero, as in
a sine wave symmetrical about zero - Vavg = 0.637 x Vpk
 RMS (Root-Mean-Square) Value: s the value of the equivalent direct (non
varying) voltage or current which would provide the same energy to a circuit as the
sine wave measured. That is, if an AC sine wave has a RMS value of 240 volts, it
will provide the same energy to a circuit as a DC supply of 240 volts - Vrms = 0.707
x Vpk

18
 Activity 4.1
 4.1 The AC voltage used in your home has an effective or
rms value of 220 volts. Find its, peak value (Vpk), peak-
to-peak (Vpk-pk), and average value (Vavg).
 Plot the calculated values in a sin-graph.

 4.2. You have a car heater (DC) of 12 volts. You have to

test this heater in you home using your varying bench AC
power supply unit. The unit displays only peak value of
the output AC. What value of AC you will use to test the
heater effectively.

19
 Half-wave Rectifier
 Type of rectifier which converts half of the AC input
power (only positive half cycle) into pulsating DC
output power and the remaining half cycle (negative
half cycle) is blocked or lost.
 In half wave rectifier, we use only a single diode.

20
 Half-wave Rectifier Circuit
 At the input, a transformer is used to step-down the input voltage
– e.g. 220 volts to 12 volt
 At the output, a capacitor is used to smoothen the pulsating DC
to smooth DC – filter capacitor
 As half AC is lost, the efficiency is only 40.6%
 Ripple factor (ratio ripple voltage to pure DC) = 1.21 (121%)
 Ripple frequency is same as supply frequency – 50 Hz

21
 Half-wave Rectifier Output Values

  Value of the irregular output voltage would be equal in value

to an equivalent DC voltage of 0.318*Vmax of the input
sinusoidal waveform or 0.45*Vrms of the input sinusoidal
waveform.
22
Half-wave Rectifier Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Advantages: Low cost due to few component, easy to
construct, only one diode voltage drop
 Disadvantages: As half wave is lost, there is loss of power
 Only 40.6% efficiency
 Output is pulsating DC, not much useful
 Output voltage is low
 Applications:
 Low power, low cost systems like arc welding set
 Car Battery charger

23
 Full-wave Rectifier
 Type of rectifier which converts full wave AC
(positive and negative cycles) input power into
pulsating DC output
 In full wave rectifier, we use two diodes or four
diodes as in bridge rectifier

24
 Full-wave Rectifier Circuit
 At the input, a center-tapped transformer is used to step-down
the input voltage – e.g. 220 volts to 12 volt
 At the output, a capacitor is used to smoothen the pulsating DC
to smooth DC – filter capacitor
 As full cycle AC is used, the efficiency is 81.2%
 Ripple factor (ratio ripple voltage to pure DC) = 0.48 (48%)
 Transformer utilization factor(TUF) is 0.693
 Ripple frequency is double of supply frequency – 100 Hz

25
 Full-wave Rectifier Output Values

 The average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now

double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is
about  0.637Vmax  of the peak voltage, assuming no losses.

 Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the

secondary winding and VRMS is the rms value. 26
Full-wave Rectifier Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Advantages: Higher Efficiency, Low power loss, Low
ripples
 Disadvantages: Higher cost of center-tapped transformer
(CT)
 CT occupies large space
 3 wire input
 Applications:
 Medium power, medium cost systems like
audio/video amplifier power supplies
 Medium power Battery charger
27
 Bridge Rectifier Diodes
 To avoid the use of center-tapped transformer in full-wave
rectification bridge rectifies are used
 A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge
circuit configuration
 A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-
wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared
to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a
center tap.
 Available as bridge modules

28
Demo
 Bridge Rectifier Circuit
 Four diodes (or bride module) are connected in
bridge configuration
 2 wire AC input is connected to the Anode-
Cathode junctions of the diode pairs.
 Plus output taken from the anodes junction and
minus output is taken from the cathodes
junction of diodes
 Load resistor and a capacitor is also connected across the output.
 As full cycle AC is used, the efficiency is 81.2%
 Ripple factor is 48% (same as full-wave rectifier)
 Transformer utilization factor(TUF) is 0.812
 Ripple frequency is double of supply frequency – 100 Hz
29
 Bridge Rectifier Output Values
 The average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax
 Amplitude of the output voltage is two diode voltage drops
( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude

30
 Bridge Rectifier Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Advantages: Higher Efficiency, Low power loss, Low
ripples, No CT transformer and thus low cost, 2 wire inputs
and outputs
 Disadvantages:
 Two diode voltage drops (0.7 + 0.7)
 Applications:
 High power, high cost systems like industrial power
supplies
 Industrial rectifiers and UPS, traction systems
 Chlorination plants, Aluminum plants
31
 Comparison of Rectifiers
Half Wave Full Wave Bridge
(CT)
Diodes 1 2 4
Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Ripple Factor 121% 48% 48%
Average DC Output 0.318Vpk 0.637Vpk 0.637Vpk
Average DC output 0.45Vrms 0.9Vrms 0.9Vrms
No-Load DC Output Vpk/π 2Vpk/π 2Vpk/π
Peak DC Output Vpk – 0.7 Vpk – 0.7 Vpk –(0.7 + 0.7)
VDC/R
Ripple frequency 50 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz
TUF 0.287 0.693 0.812
DC power from 1 KVA TRX 287 watts 693 watts 812 watts
Output wave form 32
 Smoothing Capacitor
 We can improve the average DC output
of the rectifier while at the same time
reducing the AC variation of the rectified
output by using smoothing capacitors to
filter the output waveform.
 Smoothing or reservoir capacitors
connected in parallel with the load across
the output of the full wave bridge rectifier
circuit increases the average DC output
level even higher as the capacitor acts
like a storage device as shown.

 The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the

rectifier into a more smooth DC output voltage. 
 The working voltage of the capacitor should be above the no-load voltage 33
of the rectifier. It should have sufficient capacitance.
 Zener Diodes
 Zener diode is a silicon diode that is specifically designed to work
in the reverse biased condition.
 When forward biased, it behaves like a normal signal diode, but
when the reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains
constant for a wide range of currents.
 Due to this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator in D.C. circuit
to maintain constant voltage.
 Each type of Zener diode has a Zener voltage.
 Let us say if Zener voltage of 5 V is used then, the voltage
becomes constant at 5 V, and it does not change.

Demo

34
 Zener Diodes
 With forward bias the operating characteristics is similar to
that of normal diode with the basic p-n junction.  
 In reverse bias mode after it reaches the minimum Zener
voltage there we can see the increment in the values of
current but the voltage remains constant after that point.
 Because of this property Zener diodes are used as voltage
regulators in electronic circuits.

Demo

35
 Zener Diode Voltage Chart
BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating 500mW
 Different Zener
2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V voltage is obtained by
varying the doping
5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V level while
manufacturing the
11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 22V
Zener diode
24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V

BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W

3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6 6.2V

6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V

15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V

36
33V 36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V
 Zener Regulator Circuit
 Current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode
tends to increase which results in the voltage drop across the resistor.
 Similarly, the current through the diode decreases when the voltage
across the diode tends to decrease.
 Here, the voltage drop across the resistor is very less, and the output
voltage results normally.
 The value of the series resistor RS = (VL − VZ)IL

37
 PIN Diodes
 A PIN diode is a one kind of diode with an undoped, wide
intrinsic semiconductor region between a P-type and N-type
semiconductor region.
 Three main layers:
 P-type
 Intrinsic
 N-type
 The wider intrinsic region is in difference to an ordinary p–n
diode.
 This region makes the diode an inferior rectifier but it makes it
appropriate for fast switches, attenuators, photo detectors and
high voltage power electronics applications

38
 Application of PIN Diodes
• The PIN diode is used as a high voltage rectifier. The intrinsic layer in
the diode offers a partition between the both the layers, permitting
higher reverse voltages to be tolerated
• The PIN diode is used as an ideal radio frequency switch. The intrinsic
layer among the P & N layers increases the space between them. This
also reduces the capacitance between both the regions, thus raising the
level of isolation when the PIN diode is reverse biased.
• The PIN diode is used as a photo detector to convert the light into the
current which takes place in the depletion layer of a photo diode.
• This diode is an ideal element to give electronics switching in
applications of electronics. It is mainly useful for RF design applications
and also for providing the switching, or an attenuating element in RF
 attenuators and RF switches. The PIN diode is capable to give much
higher levels of consistency than RF relays that are frequently the only
other alternative.

39
 Characteristics of PIN Diodes
• Obeys the typical diode equation for small frequency signals. At higher
frequencies, PIN diode appears like an approximately perfect resistor
• A PIN diode properly biased, therefore performs as a variable resistor.
This high-frequency resistance may differ over a broad range (from 0.1
Ω-10 kΩ in some cases; the practical range is slighter, though).
• The wider intrinsic area also means the PIN diode will have a low
capacitance when reverse-biased.
• This depletion region is much better than in a PN-diode, and nearly
constant-size, independent of the reverse bias applied to the PN-diode.
• This increases the amount where pairs of electron-hole can be produced
by an occurrence photon. Some photo detector devices like 
photo transistors and PIN photodiodes employ a PIN-junction in their
construction.

40
 Photo Diodes
 In darkness no conduction and the diode is in open
condition
 When light falls on it, it starts conducting.
 Current flow is proportional to the intensity of light.
 Application includes light/dark detection and generation of
electricity

Demo 41
 Laser Diodes
 Also called injection diode produces coherent light (in which
the waves are all at the same frequency and phase) in the
visible or infrared (IR) spectrum when current passes
through it.
 Used in optical fiber systems, CD players, laser printers,
remote controlled devices, and intrusion detection systems.

42
Demo
 Schottky Diode
 A Schottky Diode (1N58xx) is a metal-semiconductor diode with a low
forward voltage drop (<0.4V) and a very fast switching speed
 Are high current diodes, also known as hot-carrier diodes.
 Is formed by joining a doped semiconductor region (usually n-type) with
gold, silver or platinum.
 Used fast switching applications (SMPS), clamping circuits, and high
frequency (gigahertz) applications.

Demo 43
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 LED is a semiconductor diode which emits light when in
conduction
 LEDs with various colors with varying current and voltage
ratings are available
 How to test a LED with multimeter

44
Demo
 Types of LEDs
by Size, Shape and Color
 Various Types of LEDs are available by sizes, shapes, color

45
 Types of LEDs by Material
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness
red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
• Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
• Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

46
 LED Voltage Drops
LED Voltage drops – @ 20mAmp Forward Current

47
 Advantages of LEDs
• Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than
incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of LED lighting
fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent
light bulbs or tubes.
• Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without
using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need.
This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
• Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm) and are
easily attached to printed circuit boards.
• Warmup time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red
indicator LED achieves full brightness in under a 
microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can
have even faster response times. 48
 Advantages of LEDs ..
• Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off
cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster
when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps)
that require a long time before restarting.
• Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width
modulation or lowering the forward current. This pulse-width
modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars,
when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or
flicker. This is a type of stroboscopic effect.
• Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very
little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive
objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the
base of the LED.
49
 Advantages of LEDs …
• Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather
than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.
• Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One
report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though
time to complete failure may be shorter or
longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000
to 25,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use,
and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours.
Several demonstrations have shown that reduced
maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than
energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the
payback period for an LED product.
50
 Advantages of LEDs ….
• Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are
difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent
and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.
• Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed
to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often
require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a
usable manner. For larger LED packages total internal
reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect.
However, when large quantities of light are needed many
light sources are usually deployed, which are difficult to
focus or collimate towards the same target
51
Some Applications of LEDs

52
 Multicolor LEDs
 Has four terminals or leads for Three LEDs (Red, Green and
Blue) inside. One lead is common for all three LEDs

Demo 53
 Infrared Spectrum
 Infrared radiation is a form of human invisible light.
 The only difference between IR light and visible light is the
frequency and wavelength. 
 Infrared radiation lies outside the range of visible light, so
humans can’t see it.

54
 Infrared Properties
 IR light is an electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
 Within the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared waves occur at
frequencies above those of microwaves(300 GHz) and just
below those of red visible light (430 THz), hence the name
“infrared.”
 The wavelength of IR extends from 700 nanometers to 1
millimeter.
 Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room
temperature is infrared.
 IR can’t pass through walls or other materials like Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth signals
 The speed at which infrared waves travels is 299,792,458
m.s-1 55
 Infrared Uses
 As Heat Source in Medical and Manufacturing industries
 As they can penetrate through skin upto 3-4mm, used for treating skin
injuries smoothing of wrinkles, reducing dandruffs etc. Also warm
skin resulting in improved blood circulations, continuous supply of
oxygen and other nutrients to the skin.
 Massage therapy – warming skin and for relaxing muscles
 IR Communication - Data transmission with the help of infrared
radiation is very common in short-range communication.
 For encoding the data infrared light-emitting diodes are used which
emit infrared radiation and is focused into a narrow beam with the
help of a plastic lens.
 At the receiver end, a photodiode is placed for converting infrared
radiation into electric current.

56
Infrared Communication System
 IR communication Is a line of sight wireless communication
system that uses IR as communication media
 It is a high speed data transfer system – 1 Gbps
 A typical infrared communication system requires an IR
transmitter and an IR receiver.
 IR communication requires a direct line of sight from the receiver
to the transmitter.
 It can’t transmit through walls or other materials like Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth
 The transmitter looks just like a standard LED, except it produces
light in the IR spectrum instead of the visible spectrum.
 The IR receiver is a photodiode and pre-amplifier that converts the
IR light into an electrical signal.
57
 Infrared Communication
 Point to point (line of sight)

TSAL6400 IR LED Photodiode – Receiver

- Transmitter VS1838B – 38 KHz

 Diffuse point (reflected /bounced)

58
 Infrared (Transmitter)LED
• An Infrared light-emitting diode (IR LED) is a special
purpose LED emitting infrared rays ranging from 700
nm to 1 mm wavelength.
• Different IR LEDs may produce infrared light of
differing wavelengths, just like different LEDs produce
light of different colors.
• IR LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminium gallium
arsenide.
• The appearance of IR LED is same as a common LED.
• Since the human eye cannot see the infrared radiations, it is not possible for
a person to identify if an IR LED is working.
• A camera on a cell phone camera solves this problem. The IR rays from the
IR LED in the circuit are shown in the camera.
• TSAL6400 is a practical IR LED used in remote controls of TV
59
 Infrared LED Applications
• The IR LED is used as a light source in optical
systems.
• The IR LED is used in burglar alarm systems.
• It is used as card and paper tape reader.
• It is used in colored zoom infrared water proof
video camera.
• It is used in medical treatment appliances.
• It is used in space optical communication.
• It is used in remote control handsets (TSLA
6400.
• IR LED is used as a shift encoder.

60
 Infrared Receiver (Photodiode)
• Miniaturized IR receiver diode widely used by
engineers and hobbyists
• The VS38238B is an IR Receiver module for
infrared remote control systems.
• In VS38238, a PIN diode and a preamplifier are
assembled on a lead frame while the epoxy package
acts as an IR filter.
• The operating voltage range for the TSOP38238 IR
Receiver diode is from 2.5V to 5.5V.

• Compatible with all IR remote control data formats so can be used

with common IR remote controllers.
• Low power consumption and easy to use package.
61
 Infrared Receiver (Photodiode)
• VS38238B Features:
• Operating Voltage: 2.5V to 5.5V
• Operating Current: 350μA
• Output Current: 5mA
• Carrier Frequency: 38 kHz
• Transmission Distance: 45 m
• Operating Temperature Range: -25 to 85 C
• Pd - Power Dissipation: 10mW

62
 IR Receiver Application Circuit

• The Resistor R1 and Capacitor C1 are used to reduce the supply

ripples.
• VS1838B consists of a PIN diode, a preamplifier, and an IR filter.
• The receiver diode detects all frequencies of IR light, but the filter
only lets through IR at 38 kHz.
• Then the preamplifier modulates the signal and converts it to an
electrical signal before sending it to a microcontroller.

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VS1838B Photodiode Applications

In Remote Controls of:

•Light detecting portion of remote control
•AV instruments such as Audio, TV, VCR, CD, MD, etc.
•Home appliances such as Air-conditioner, Fan, etc.
•Multi-media Equipment
•Line or obstacle sensor modules
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 Activity 4.3 - Lighting up a LED
 Draw the circuit diagram
 Select a LED and Verify its voltage and current
rate from the datasheet/chart
 Select a voltage source
 Calculate the excess voltage to be dropped
(Battery voltage – LED voltage)
 Calculate the value of the resistance required to
drop above voltage (divide the above voltage
by the current rating of the selected LED)
 Select this resistance from band chart
 Connect the above resistance in series with the
LED and battery
 Use a breadboard to assemble the circuit and
test
 Activity 4.4 – Circuit with one, two
and three LEDs
 1. Wire a simple LED circuit shown above using battery power (use 6V
power supply, 4 x 1.5 V Batteries). Students learn how to use a jumper wire
to breadboard. Don’t forget to use a resistor. Is your LED lighting up?
 2. Measure the voltage across the LED. And note down (Vled)
 3. Measure the voltage across the resistor (Vr)
 4. What is the total voltage, Vt = Vled + Vr
 5. Measure the voltage across the circuit and compare with Vt.
 6. What is your conclusion? Can you measure the current in the circuit?
 7. Build a circuit with two LEDs. Draw a schematic diagram with two LEDS.
 8. Can you create a circuit with 3 LEDs?
 9. Can you measure the voltage at appropriate locations? What is your
conclusion?
Activity 4.5 – Experiment with Tri-
Color LED
 Identify the tri-color LED from your kit.
 Tri-color LED is essentially an LED made of
three individual LEDs.
 Our tri-color LED is made of Red, Green and
Blue LEDs.
 Remove individual LEDs from your
breadboard and replace with the tri-color
LED.
 The black wire from the tri-color LED will
go to the ground.
 Connect one wire at a time and record your
observation.
 Activity 4.6: Circuit Assembly and
Testing
4.6. Test a PN Junction Diode and a LED using Multimeter

4.7. You are provided with a 5 mm Red LED, a set of Resistances, terminal
wires, breadboard and a PP3 cell. You are required to draw the circuit
diagram and calculate the value of the resistance to safely light up the LED.
Finally assemble the circuit on a breadboard and demonstrate the tutor.

4.8. In the above circuit measure voltage across the LED, resistor and PP3
with multimeter and justify the findings.

4.9. In the above circuit measure the current with multimeter and verify with
the LED current rating. Do it with the presence of tutor.
 Any Questions?

Year 1 Session 4 Concludes

Thank You !

Vijaya Kumar

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