Statistical Process

Control (SPC)
Praful Mehta
Agenda
• Control Charts

• Construction of Control Charts

• Reading and Interpreting of Control Charts

• Attribute Charts

• Case Study

2
Control Charts (SPC)

SPC is a key element in the continuous

improvement process
 SPC allows us to make decisions based on
an understanding of the real levels of
variation.
 It allows us to recognize when our
processes/product are out of control
 It helps us to separate signal from noise
 It lets us separate the capability of the
process and the specification limits for the
product

3
History of Control Charts

 Developed in 1920’s
 By Dr. Walter A. Shewhart
 Shewhart worked for Bell Telephone Labs

4
What Is a Control Chart?

5
Why Use Control Charts?

6
Uses for Control Charts
 Separate common cause variation from special cause
variation so that management can respond appropriately to
find root causes.
 Understand and predict process capability.
 Measure whether intentional changes had the desired result.
 Find root cause(s).
 Monitor key processes to maintain the gains.

7
R&S
Control chart functions

Input PROCESS Output


What’s causing variability?
Control charts are powerful aids to understanding the performance of a process over time.

8
Common-Cause Variation

 Common causes:
 Represent everyday, random variation in a process
 Are a part of the process
 Contribute to output variation because they themselves vary
 Produce predictable levels of variation over time
 Produce all of the variation in a stable process

9
R&S
Special-Cause Variation

 Special causes:
 Are not usually present
 May come and go sporadically; may be temporary
or long-term
 Appear under some particular circumstance
 Are not predictable
 Contribute to variation in an unstable process
10
 Example: Special-Cause Variation

 Special causes of variation do not normally occur and often due

to some change in the process. For example, some special
causes that might result in a shift in the time it takes to be served
in a restaurant:
 A new waiter or chef
 A new menu
 Some special causes that might result in single high or low points
are:
 Several employees calling in sick
 A wedding or other function
11
Source of variation

 Equipment
 Tool wear, machine vibration, …

 Material
 Raw material quality

 Environment
 Temperature, pressure, humidity

 Operator
 Operator performs- physical & emotional
12
Types Of Control Chart
There are two types of control charts that we deal with.
Variables Control Charts These charts are applied to data that follow a continuous
distribution.

Attributes Control Charts These charts are applied to data that follow a discrete
distribution.

Attributes Data:- Data that can be classified into one of several categories or
classifications is known as attribute data. Classifications such as conforming and
nonconforming are commonly used in quality control. Another example of
attributes data is the count of defects.

13
Types Of Attributes Control Chart
p chart :- This chart shows the fraction of nonconforming or defective
product produced by a process. It is also called the control chart for fraction
nonconforming.

np chart:- This chart shows the number of nonconforming. Almost the same
as the p chart.

c chart:- This shows the number of defects or nonconformities produced by

a process.

u charts:- This chart shows the nonconformities per unit produced by a

process.

14
Types Of Variables Control Chart

 X-bar chart
 In this chart the sample means are plotted in order to control the mean
value of a variable (e.g., size of piston rings, strength of materials, etc.).
 R chart
 In this chart, the sample ranges are plotted in order to control the
variability of a variable.
 S chart
 In this chart, the sample standard deviations are plotted in order to control
the variability of a variable.
15
Statistical Process Control
Measurement data

Continuous data Discrete data

A:
B:
1 2 3 4 5 C:

Attributes (yes/no)
Counts

? ? ?

Subgroup size Subgroups Subgroup size Subgroup size Subgroup size Subgroup size Subgroup size
constant and constant changes constant changes constant changes
equal to 1

Individuals X-R X-S P NP C U

charts or charts charts charts charts charts charts
I-MR charts

Continous Pass/fail Number of faults

16
Construction of Control Chart
X-bar and R charts

 The X- bar chart is developed from the average of each

subgroup data.
 used to detect changes in the mean between subgroups.
 The R- chart is developed from the ranges of each
subgroup data
 used to detect changes in variation within subgroups
18
Control chart components

 Centerline
UCL  X  3
 shows where the process average is centered or the central
LCL  X  3of the data
tendency
  standard deviation
 Upper control limit (UCL) and Lower control limit (LCL)
 describes the process spread
19
Why 3 Sigma?

95%
99.74%

-3 -2 -1 =0 1 2 3

 34.13% of data lie between  and 1 above the mean ().

 34.13% between  and 1 below the mean.
 Approximately two-thirds (68.28 %) within 1 of the mean.
 13.59% of the data lie between one and two standard deviations
 Finally, almost all of the data (99.74%) are within 3 of the mean.
20
Zones for Control Charts

21
Some Terms

 Run chart - without any upper/lower limits

 Specification/tolerance limits - not statistical
 Control limits - statistical

22
Control Limits V/S Specification Limits
Control Limits are used to determine if the process is in a
state of statistical control (i.e., is producing consistent
output). statistical

Specification Limits are used to determine if the product

will function in the intended fashion. not statistical

Customer
needs

1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61
Time Order
23
 Number and Size of Sample
Shewhart gave the following rule of thumb:

"It has also been observed that a person would seldom if ever be
justified in concluding that a state of statistical control of a given
repetitive operation or production process has been reached until he
had obtained, under presumably the same essential conditions, a
sequence of not less than twenty five samples of size four."

24
The Control Chart Method

X bar Control Chart: UCL  X  3

UCL = Xmean + A2 x Rmean
LCL = Xmean - A2 x Rmean LCL  X  3
CL = Xmean    standard deviation

R Control Chart:
UCL = D4 x Rmean
LCL = D3 x Rmean
CL = Rmean 

25
Elements of a Control Chart Step 1

26
Constructing an X-Bar & R chart Step 2

27
Constructing an X-Bar & R chart Step 3

28
Constructing an X-Bar & R chart Step 4

29
Constructing an X-Bar & R chart Step 5~10

30
Constructing an X-Bar & R chart Step 9

31
Example: Control Charts forfill Variable
Time to Data
customer data
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 X R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

32
Calculation

From Table :
 Sigma X-bar = 50.09
 Sigma R = 1.15
 m = 10
Thus;
 X-Double bar = 50.09/10 = 5.009 cm
 R-bar = 1.15/10 = 0.115 cm
33
 Trial control limit

 UCLx-bar = Xmean + A2 x Rmean = 5.009 + (0.577)(0.115) =

5.075 cm
 LCLx-bar = Xmean - A2 x Rmean = 5.009 - (0.577)(0.115) = 4.943
cm

 UCLR = D4 x Rmean = (2.114)(0.115) = 0.243 cm

 LCLR = D3 x Rmean = (0)(0.115) = 0 cm
For A2, D3, D4: see Table where n=5
34
 X-bar Chart

5.10
UCL
5.08
5.06
5.04
X bar

5.02
5.00 CL
4.98
4.96 LCL
4.94
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Subgroup

35
 R Chart

0.25 UCL

0.20
Range

0.15
CL

0.10

0.05
LCL
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Subgroup

36
 Run Chart 6.70
6.65

M e a n , X -b a r
6.60
6.55
6.50
6.45
6.40
6.35
6.30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Subgroup number
0.35
0.3
0.25
R a nge , R

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Subgroup number

37
Reading and interpreting of Control
Charts
Chart Description Example #1 Example #2 Interpretation
The process is stable, not changing.
UCL 20 UCL 20
Chart points do not form a particular pattern Doesn’t necessarily mean to leave the
Process
AND lie within the upper and lower chart process alone. May be opportunities to
In X 15 X 15

limits. improve the process and enjoy substantial

Control
LCL 10 LCL 10 benefits.

Alerts you that the process is changing.

UCL 20 UCL 20 Doesn’t mean you need to take corrective
Chart points form a particular pattern OR
Process action. May be related to a change you
one or more points lie beyond the upper or
Out of X 15 X 15 have made. Be sure to identify the
lower chart limits.
Control reason(s) before taking any constructive
LCL 10 LCL 10 action(s).

Suggests the process has undergone a

UCL 20 UCL 20
Chart points are on one side of the center permanent change (+ or -) and is now
line. The # of points in a run is called the becoming stable. Often requires that you
Run X 15 X 15
length of the run. recompute the control lines for future
LCL 10 LCL 10
interpretation efforts.

7 1 Often seen after some change has been

UCL 20 UCL 20
2
A continued rise or fall in a series of points 5
6 3
4
made. Helps tell you if the change(s) had a
4
(7 or more consecutive points in the same 2 3 5 + or - effect. May also be part of a learning
Trend X 15
1 X 15 6
direction). 7 curve associated with some form of training.
LCL 10 LCL 10

Often relates to factors that influence the

UCL 20 UCL 20 process in a predictable manner. Factors
Chart points show the same pattern occur over a set time period and have +/-
Cycle changes (e.g., rise or fall) over equal X 15 X 15
effect. Helps determine future work
periods of time. load/staffing levels.
LCL 10 LCL 10

39
Interpreting X-bar & R Charts Rule 1

40
Interpreting X-bar & R Charts Rule 2

41
Interpreting X-bar & R Charts Rule 3

42
Interpreting X-bar & R Charts Rule 4

43
Control Chart Rules – examples of the rationale

 Rule#1: One point outside the UCL or LCL (3-sigma limit)

 P( |x – m|> 3s ) ~ 0,3%

 Rule#2: Two of three consecutive points outside the 2-sigma limit

 3 P( |x – m|> 2s )2 ~ 0,3%

 Rule#3: Four of five consecutive points outside the one-sigma limit

 5 P( |x – m|> 1s )4 ~ 0,5%

 Rule#4: Eight consecutive points on one side of the center line

 0.58 ~ 0,4%

44
Variable control chart alarms

• 1 point more than 3 standard deviations from center line

• 9 points in a row on same side of center line

• 6 points in a row, all increasing or all decreasing

• 14 points in a row, alternating up and down

• 2 out of 3 points > 2 standard deviations from center line (same side)

• 4 out of 5 points > 1 standard deviation from center line (same side)

• 15 points in a row within 1 standard deviation of center line (either side)

• 8 points in a row > 1 standard deviation from center line (either side)

45
Statistically Analysis- Hourly Output
Data Points: 315

Findings:
• Average Hourly output
improved from 124 to 156
numbers.

•No data point is outside of

UCL and LCL, it shows
process is stable.

46
Exercise

47
Answer

48
Factors
Appendix: Determining Control Limits for x-bar and R-Charts
SAMPLE SIZE FACTOR FOR x-CHART FACTORS FOR R-CHART
n A2 D3 D4

2 1.88 0.00 3.27

3 1.02 0.00 2.57
4 0.73 0.00 2.28
5 0.58 0.00 2.11
6 0.48 0.00 2.00
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
9 0.44 0.18 1.82
10 0.11 0.22 1.78
11 0.99 0.26 1.74
12 0.77 0.28 1.72
13 0.55 0.31 1.69
14 0.44 0.33 1.67
15 0.22 0.35 1.65
16 0.11 0.36 1.64
17 0.00 0.38 1.62
18 0.99 0.39 1.61
19 0.99 0.40 1.61
49
20 0.88 0.41 1.59
 Exercise: Interpreting I-MR Charts
Case 1: Temperature
 A DMAIIC team has found that higher temperatures are driving defects. The current temperature
specifications are 45 to 75 degrees F. The team checked to see if temperature was drifting up during
the day.

I-MR Chart of Temperature (F)

70 UCL=70.78

Degrees (F)
_
60 X=60.36

50 LCL=49.94

9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 13:00 13:30 14:00 14:30 15:00
Time

UCL=12.80
12
Moving Range

6
__
MR=3.92
3

0 LCL=0

9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 13:00 13:30 14:00 14:30 15:00
Time

50
 Exercise: Interpreting I-MR Charts
Case 2: QC Lab TAT
 A DMAIIC team was chartered to reduce QC lab reduce turn-around-time (TAT) to less than 10 days. As a first
step, in late August the team removed the non-value-adding activities.

I-MR Chart of QC TAT (Days)

16
UCL=15.280

14 _
X=13.384

Days
12
LCL=11.488

10
3/8/05 3/29/05 4/19/05 5/10/05 5/31/05 6/21/05 7/12/05 8/2/05 8/23/05 9/13/05 10/4/05
Week

UCL=2.329
2.0
Moving Range

1.5

1.0
__
MR=0.713
0.5

0.0 LCL=0
3/8/05 3/29/05 4/19/05 5/10/05 5/31/05 6/21/05 7/12/05 8/2/05 8/23/05 9/13/05 10/4/05
Week

51
 Exercise: Interpreting I-MR Charts
Case 3: Test Volume
 One skeptic on the QC DMAIIC team thought that the improvement in TAT was a result of a significant reduction
in volume.

I-MR Chart of Tests Volume

28
UCL=27.214

26

# Tests
_
X=24.469
24

22
LCL=21.723

3/8/05 3/29/05 4/19/05 5/10/05 5/31/05 6/21/05 7/12/05 8/2/05 8/23/05 9/13/05 10/4/05
Week

UCL=3.373
3
Moving Range

__
1 MR=1.032

0 LCL=0
3/8/05 3/29/05 4/19/05 5/10/05 5/31/05 6/21/05 7/12/05 8/2/05 8/23/05 9/13/05 10/4/05
Week

52
 Exercise: Interpreting I-MR Charts
Case 4:Marketing Costs
 The director of marketing was reviewing her expenses for the past two years. Based on the average, she had
budgeted the cost of $105,000 each month, but last month expenses were $117,000. She asked the staff to
explain why the costs were so much higher last month.

I-MR Chart of Marketing Costs

UCL=127730

120000
Dollars
_
X=104636
100000

80000 LCL=81542
r r l ct b ar r l ct
04 Fe b Ma Ap Ma
y
Ju
n Ju g
Au Se
p
O No
v c 5
De n 0 F e M Ap Ma
y
Ju
n Ju g p
Au Se O No
v
De
c
n
Ja Ja
Month

30000
UCL=28371
Moving Range

20000

10000 __
MR=8683

0 LCL=0
Jan 04 Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan 05 Mar May Jul Sep Nov
Month

53
Attribute Charts
Control Charts for Attributes

 p-charts
 uses portion defective in a sample
 c-charts
 uses number of defects in an item

55
p-Chart

UCL = p + zp
LCL = p - zp
z = number of standard deviations from process
average = 3
p = sample proportion defective; an estimate of
process average
p = standard deviation of sample proportion

p(1 - p)
p =
n

56
p-Chart Example

NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04
: : :
: : :
20 18 .18
200

20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

57
p-Chart Example (cont.)

total defectives
p= = 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total sample observations

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
n 100
UCL = 0.190

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
n 100
LCL = 0.010

58
p-Chart Example (cont.)
0.20

0.18 UCL = 0.190

0.16

Proportion defective 0.14

0.12
p = 0.10
0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02 LCL = 0.010

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number

59
P-Charts

60
P control chart

61
 MINITAB FOLLOW ALONG: CONSTRUCT P AND NP
CHARTS (EQUAL SAMPLE SIZES)
 Background: A manufacturer of cough syrup sampled 50 bottles at a time
to see if they were filled correctly (not over or under filled).

Sample Date Sample Size Good Fill % Good Fill

1 10/24/05 50 39 78
2 10/25/05 50 35 70
3 10/26/05 50 38 76
. . . . .
. . . . .
23 11/15/05 50 42 84
24 11/16/05 50 36 72

62
R&S
 C-CHART

UCL = c + zc
c = c
LCL = c - zc

where

c = number of defects per sample

63
c-Chart (cont.)
Number of defects in 15 sample rooms

NUMBER
SAMPLE OF
DEFECTS 190
1 12 c = 15 = 12.67
2 8
3 16 UCL = c + zc

: : = 12.67 + 3 12.67
= 23.35
: :
15 15 LCL= c + zc
190 = 12.67 - 3 12.67
= 1.99

64
c-Chart (cont.)
24
UCL = 23.35
21

18

Number of defects
c = 12.67

15

12

3 LCL = 1.99

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number

65
C Chart

66