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Materials Selection with Shape

FUNCTION SHAPE

SHAPES FOR TENSION,

BENDING, TORSION,
BUCKLING
MATERIAL --------------------
SHAPE FACTORS
--------------------
PERFORMANCE INDICES
WITH SHAPE

PROCESS
Common Modes of Loading
Moments of Sections: Elastic
Section A I K A = Cross-sectional area
Shape (m2) (m4) (m4)
 4  4 I = Second moment of area
r 2 r r
4 2
I y 2 dA   y 2by dy
sec tion sec tion
2
b4 4
b 0.14b
12 where y is measured vertically
by is the section width at y
 3 a 3 b 3
ab ab
4 (a 2  b 2 )
b3h  b K = Resistance to twisting of section
bh 3
1  0.58 
bh 3  h (≡ Polar moment J of a circular section)
12

3 2 a 4
a
(h  b )
4
3
K
TL
G
J   2r dr 
sec tion
3

a
4 32 3 80
where T is the torque
 4  4 L is the length of the shaft
 (ro2  ri 2 ) ( ro  ri 4 ) (ro  ri 4 )
4 2 θ is the angle of twist
 2rt  r 3t  2r 3t G is the shear modulus
Moments of Sections: Elastic
Section A I K
Shape (m2) (m4) (m4)
4
4bt 2 3  t
bt b t 1  
3

3  b

 3  3b  4 (ab )5 / 2 t
 (a  b )t a t 1  
4  a  a2  b2
b 3
b(ho  hi ) ( ho  hi3 )
12
 2bt
 btho2 / 2
1 3  3b  2tb 2h 2 2 3 4h 
2t ( h  b ) h t 1    bt 1  
6  h  hb 3  b 

t 3 t3 2 3 4b 
2t ( h  b ) ( h  4bt 2 ) ( 8b  h ) ht 1  
6 3 3  h 

  2d 2  t d 2
t 1  
2 
 4   8
Moments of Sections: Failure
Section Z Q
Shape (m3) (m3)
 3  3 I
r r Z = Section modulus Z
4 2 ym
b3 where
0.21b 3
6 ym is the normal distance from the neutral axis
 2 a 2 b to the outer surface of the beam carrying the
ab 2 highest stress
4
(a  b )
2
b 2h 2
bh Q = Factor in twisting similar to Z
3h  1.8b
6
(h  b)
T
Q
a3 a3 
32 20 where
 4  4
(ro  ri 4 ) (ro  ri 4 )  is the maximum surface shear stress
4ro 2ro
 r 2t  2r 2t
Moments of Sections: Failure
Section Z Q
Shape (m3) (m3)
2
4 2  t
bt 2b t 1  
2

3  b

a 2t  3b  2t (a3b )1/ 2

1  
4  a  (b  a )
b
6ho
 ho3  hi3 

 btho

h 2t  3b  2 2 4h 
1   2tbh bt 1  
3  h  3  b 

t t2 2 2 4b 
(h 3  4bt 2 ) (8b  h ) ht 1  
3h 3 3  h 

t d
4
 Shape Factors: Elastic
BENDING TORSION

C1EI KG
Bending stiffness of a beam SB  Torsional stiffness of a beam ST 
L3 L
where C1 is a constant depending on the where L is the length of the shaft, G is the
loading details, L is the length of the beam, shear Modulus of the material.
and E is the Young’s modulus of the material

Define structure factor as the ratio of the Define structure factor as the ratio of the
stiffness of the shaped beam to that of a torsional stiffness of the shaped shaft to that
solid circular section with the same cross- of a solid circular section with the same
sectional area thus: S I cross-sectional area thus:
Be   ST K
Te 
B

SBo Io STo K o

 4 A2 4I  4 A2 2K
Io  r  so,   2
e
B Ko  r  so, Te 
4 4 A 2 2 A2
 Shape Factors: Failure/Strength
BENDING TORSION
The highest stress, for a given bending moment The highest shear stress, for a given torque T,
M, experienced by a beam is at the surface a experienced by a shaft is given by:
distance ym furthest from the neutral axis: T
My m M 
   Q
I Z
The beam fails when the torque is large enough for
The beam fails when the bending moment is large  to reach the failure shear stress of the material:
enough for σ to reach the failure stress of the
Tf  Q f
material: M  Z
f f

Define structure factor as the ratio of the failure Define structure factor as the ratio of the failure
moment of the shaped beam to that of a solid torque of the shaped shaft to that of a solid circular
circular section with the same cross-sectional area section with the same cross-sectional area thus:
thus: Mf Z Tf Q
B f
 Tf  
Mfo Zo Tfo Qo

 3 A3 / 2 4 Z  3 A3 / 2 2 Q
Zo  r  so,  
f
Qo  r  so, T 
f

4 4  B
A3 / 2 2 2  A3 / 2
Shape Factors: Failure/Strength

Please Note:
The shape factors for failure/strength described in this lecture course are
those defined in the 2nd Edition of “Materials Selection In Mechanical
Design” by M.F. Ashby. These shape factors differ from those defined in
the 1st Edition of the book. The new failure/strength shape factor
definitions are the square root of the old ones.
The shape factors for the elastic case are not altered in the 2nd Edition.
Comparison of Size and Shape

Rectangular sections

I-sections

SIZE →
Shape Factors
Section Stiffness Failure/Strength
Shape  e
B  e
T Bf Tf

1 1 1 1

 2 
 1.05 0.88  1.18 0.74
3 3

a 2ab
b a  b2
2
a a
(a  b )
b b

2b  h 1/ 2 2  (b / h )1/ 2
h 1  0.58  2  h
3h  b   3(1  0.6b / h )2
3b 3 b
(h  b) (h  b )
2 2
 1.21  0.73 0.77 0.62
3 3 5 3

1/ 2 1/ 2
r r  2r   2r 
   
t t  t   t 
 Shape Factors cont’d
Section Stiffness Failure/Strength
Shape  e
B 
e
T  f
B Tf
4 1/ 2 1/ 2 2
b b  t 2  b  b  t
1       1  
6t 8t  b  3 t 2  t   b

a(1  3b / a ) 8(ab )5 / 2 a

1/ 2
(1  3b / a ) 4a1/ 2
 
t (1  b / a )2 t (a 2  b 2 )(a  b )2 t (1  b / a )3 / 2 t 1/ 2 (1  a / b )3 / 2

h 2 2 h
2bt (bt )1/ 2

h(1  3b / h ) b 2h 2 t (1  4h / b ) 2 h
1/ 2
(1  3b / h ) 2 h 2
1/ 2
t (1  4h / b )
   
6t (1  b / h )2 t ( h  b )3 3b(1  h / b )2 3 t (1  b / h ) (bt ) (1  h / b )3 / 2
3/2 1/ 2 3 b (1  b / h )3 / 2

1/ 2
h(1  4bt 2 / h3 ) t (1  8b / h ) t (1  4b / h )  h (1  4bt 2 / h3 )  t 1/ 2 (1  8b / h )  
1/ 2
2  t  (1  4b / h )
    3 h (1  b / h )3 / 2
(1  b / h )3 / 2  18h  (1  b / h)
3/2
6t (1  b / h )2 6h(1  b / h )2 3h(1  b / h )2 2 t

d 2 d
2t (t )1/ 2
 Efficiency of Standard Sections

ELASTIC BENDING

4I
Shape Factor: B 
e

A2

Rearrange for I and take logs:

Be
log I  2 log A  log
4

Plot logI against logA

Be : parallel lines of slope 2
 Efficiency of Standard Sections

BENDING STRENGTH

4 Z
Shape Factor: Bf 
A3 / 2

Rearrange for I and take logs:

3 Bf
log Z  log A  log
2 4 

Plot logI against logA

Bf : parallel lines of slope 3/2
Efficiency of Standard Sections
ELASTIC TORSION TORSIONAL STRENGTH

2K Te 2 Q 3 Tf

  2 ;
e
log K  2 log A  log   3/2 ;
f
logQ  log A  log
2 2 
T T
A A 2

N.B. Open sections are good in bending, but poor in torsion

 Performance Indices with Shape
ELASTIC BENDING ELASTIC TORSION

C1EI KG
Bending stiffness of a beam: SB  Torsional stiffness of a shaft: ST 
L3 L
4I C1EBe A2
Shape factor:   2
e
B so, SB  2K GTe A2
A 4L3 Shape factor:  
e
T so, ST 
A2 2L
1/ 2 1/ 2
 4SB  5/2  
2

m     L   e  3/2  
2

1/ 2

 E B  m   2ST   L  
1/ 2
 C1  
e 
 GT 
f1(F) · f2(G) · f3(M)
f1(F) · f2(G) · f3(M)
3
So, to minimize
(EBe )1/ 2 G E So, to minimize (ETe )1/ 2
mass m, maximise M1  8 mass m, maximise M 2 
 
 Performance Indices with Shape
FAILURE IN BENDING FAILURE IN TORSION

Failure when moment reaches: Mf  Z f Failure when torque reaches: Tf  Q f

4 Z  f Bf A3 / 2 2 Q  f Tf A3 / 2
Shape factor:   Shape factor:  
f
so, Mf  so, Tf 
f
B T
A3 / 2 4  A3 / 2 4 
( f   f 2)
2/3 2/3
 3/2    3/2 
m  ( 4  Mf )  L  
2/3

f 

m  4  Tf  2/3
 L   
f 
  f B    f T 

f1(F) · f2(G) · f3(M) f1(F) · f2(G) · f3(M)

So, to minimize So, to minimize

( f Bf )2 / 3 ( f Tf )2 / 3
mass m, maximise M3  mass m, maximise M 4 
 
 Shape in Materials Selection Maps
EXAMPLE 1, Elastic bending
1000
Performance index for elastic Search Ceramics
bending including shape, Region
(BeE )1/ 2 100
M1  Engineering

Young's Modulus,E (GPa)

Composites
 Alloys

can be written as
Φ=1
10 Woods
(E  )e 1/ 2
M1  B

  e
B Φ=10
1 Engineering
A material with Young’s modulus, Polymers
E and density, ρ, with a particular
section acts as a material with an 0.1
effective Young’s modulus
Polymer
E E 
 e
B
Foams Elastomers

and density 0.01

    Be 0.1 1 10 100

Density,  (Mg/m3)
 Shape in Materials Selection Maps
EXAMPLE 1, Failure in bending
10000
Performance index for failure in
Ceramics
bending including shape,
(Bf  f )2 / 3 1000 Composites
M3 
 Search
Region

Strength, s f (MPa)
can be written as
Engineering
100
( f ( ) )
f 2 2/3 Alloys
M3  B Woods
 ( )B
f 2
Φ=1
10 Engineering
Polymers
A material with strength, σf and Φ=√10 Elastomers
density, ρ, with a particular
section acts as a material with an 1
effective strength Polymer
Foams
 f   f (Bf )2
0.1
and density
    (Bf )2 0.1 1 10 100

Density,  (Mg/m3)
 Micro-Shape Factors
Material Micro-Shape Micro-Shaped Material, ψ

Up to now we have only

considered the role of + =
macroscopic shape on the
performance of fully dense
materials.

However, materials can have

internal shape, “Micro-Shape”
which also affects their
performance,
e.g. cellular solids, foams,
honeycombs. = +

Macro-Shape from Macro-Shape, φ Micro-Shaped Material, ψ

Micro-Shaped Material,
ψφ
 Micro-Shape Factors
Consider a solid cylindrical beam expanded, at constant
mass, to a circular beam with internal shape (see right).

C1EoIo
Stiffness of the solid beam: SBo 
L3
On expanding the beam, its density falls from  o to ,
and its radius increases from ro to 1/ 2 Fibres embedded
  Prismatic cells
r   o  ro in a foam matrix
 
The second moment 2 2
 4   o  4  o 
of area increases to I  r    ro    Io
4 4   
If the cells, fibres or rings are   Concentric cylindrical
parallel to the axis of the beam then E   Eo shells with foam between
 o 
The stiffness of the
C EI C EI    S o
expanded beam is thus SB  1 3  1 3 o  o  Shape Factor:  B 
e

L L  So 
Mats. Selection: Multiple Constraints

Function
Objective
Tie
Constraint

Beam Minimum cost

Index
Stiffness

Minimum weight E 1/ 2
M1 
Shaft 
Strength
Maximum stored
energy
Column
Fatigue
Index
Minimum
environmental  f2 / 3
Mechanical impact Geometry M2 
Thermal 
Electrical…..
 Materials for Safe Pressure Vessels
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Function Pressure vessel =contain
pressure p
Objective Maximum safety
Constraints (a) Must yield before break
(b) Must leak before break
(c) Wall thickness small to
reduce mass and cost

Yield before break Leak before break Minimum strength

2
CK IC K  pR pR M3   f
  , aC  C 2  IC    , t
aC  f  2t 2 f
t CK IC
aC   
K IC 2 t / 2
M1 
f C 2pR K IC2
 K IC2
4 f M2 
f
Materials for Safe Pressure Vessels
Search
Region

K K IC2
M1  IC M2 
f f M3   f

Material M1 M3 Comment
(m1/2) (MPa)
Tough steels >0.6 300 Standard.
Tough Cu alloys >0.6 120 OFHC Cu.
M1 = 0.6 m1/2
Tough Al alloys >0.6 80 1xxx & 3xxx

Ti-alloys 0.2 700 High strength,

High strength Al 0.1 500 but low safety
alloys 0.1 500 margin. Good
GFRP/CFRP for light
M3 = 100 MPa vessels.
Multiple Constraints: Formalised
1. Express the objective as an equation.
2. Eliminate the free variables using each constraint in turn, giving a set of
performance equations (objective functions) of the form:
P1  f1(F )  g1(G )  h1(M1 ) where f, g and h are expressions containing
P2  f2 (F )  g 2 (G )  h2 (M 2 ) the functional requirements F, geometry M
P3  f3 (F )  g 3 (G )  h3 (M3 ) and materials indices M.

Pi  fi (F )  g i (G )  hi (Mi )

3. If the first constraint is the most restrictive (known as the active constraint)
then the performance is given by P1, and this is maximized by seeking
materials with the best values of M1. If the second constraint is the active
one then the performance is given by P2 and this is maximized by seeking
materials with the best values of M2; and so on.
N.B. For a given Function the Active Constraint will be material dependent.
 Multiple Constraints: A Simple Analysis
A LIGHT, STIFF, STRONG BEAM The object function is m  AL
1/ 2
C1EI t4  12SB  
Constraint 1: Stiffness S where I  so, m1     L5 / 2 
L3 12  C1  E 1/ 2
2/3
C I t  6Ff  
Constraint 2: Strength Ff  2 f where y m  so, m     L5 / 3 
 f2 / 3
2
y mL 2  C2 

If the beam is to meet both constraints then, for a given material, its weight is
determined by the larger of m1 or m2
~  max( m , m , m .....m )
or more generally, for i constraints m 1 2 3 i

Material E σf ρ m1 m2 ~
Choose a material m
~
that minimizes m (GPa) (MPa) (kgm-3) (kg) (kg) (kg)
1020 Steel 205 320 7850 8.7 16.2 16.2
6061 Al 70 120 2700 5.1 10.7 10.7
Ti 6-4 115 950 4400 6.5 4.4 6.5
 Multiple Constraints: Graphical
Construct a materials selection map based on
Performance Indices instead of materials
properties. M1 Limited
Domain
The selection map can be divided into two
A
domains in each of which one constraint is active.

log Index M2
The “Coupling Line” separates the domains and
is calculated by coupling the Objective Functions:
 f (F )g (G ) 
M1   1 1 1 1   M 2  Cc  M2 B
 f2 (F2 )g 2 (G2 ) 
where CC is the “Coupling Constant”.

Materials with M2/M1>CC , e.g. A, are limited by M2 Limited

Coupling Line Domain
M1 and constraint 1 is active. M2 = CC·M1
B
Materials with M2/M1<CC , e.g. , are limited by
log Index M1
M2 and constraint 2 is active.
 Multiple Constraints: Graphical
A box shaped Search Region is identified with its Changing the functional requirements F or geometry
corner on the Coupling Line. G changes CC, which shifts the Coupling Line, alters
Within this Search Region the performance is the Search Area, and alters the scope of materials
maximized whilst simultaneously satisfying both selection.
constraints. C are good Now A and C are selectable.
materials.
M1 Limited M1 Limited
Search Search
Domain Area Domain Area

A A

log Index M2
log Index M2

C C

B B

Coupling Line
M2 = CC·M1

M2 Limited M2 Limited
Coupling Line Domain Domain
M2 = CC·M1

log Index M1 log Index M1

 Windings for High Field Magnets
B

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Function Magnet windings
Objective Maximize magnetic field

L
Constraints (a) No mechanical failure
N Turns
Current i (b) Temperature rise <150°C
(c) Radius r and length L of
coil specified

d 2r d

Classification Pulse Field

Upper limits on field and pulse duration are Duration Strength
set by the coil material. Continuous 1s-∞ <30 T
Field too high  the coil fails mechanically Long 100 ms-1 s 30-60 T
Pulse too long  the coil overheats Standard 10 - 100 ms 40-70 T
Short 10 - 1000 µs 70-80 T
Ultra-short 0.1 - 10 µs >100 T
Windings for High Field Magnets
CONSTRAINT 1: Mechanical Failure

oNif
The field (weber/m2) is B f ( ,  )
L
where μo = the permeability of air, N = number of turns, i = current, λf = filling factor,
f(α,β) = geometric constant, α = 1+(d/r), β = L/2r

B2
Radial pressure created by the field p 
2 o f ( ,  )
pr B 2r
generates a stress in the coil   
d 2o f ( ,  )d

σ must be less than the yield stress of the coil material σy

and hence  2 d f ( ,  ) 
1/ 2

Bfailure   o y

 r  So, Bfailure is maximized
by maximizing
M1   y
Windings for High Field Magnets
CONSTRAINT 1: Overheating

The energy of the pulse is  i Ret pulse (Re = average of the resistance over the
2

heating cycle, tpulse = length of the pulse) causes the temperature of the coil to rise by

B 2et pulse
T  2 2 where Ωe = electrical resistivity of the coil material
o d Cp 
Cp = specific heat capacity of the coil material

If the upper limit for the change in temperature

1/ 2
is ΔTmax and the geometric constant of the coil  o2d 2Cp Tmax 
is included then the second limit on the field is Bheat    f ( ,  )

 t pulse e 

So, Bheat is maximized

by maximizing Cp 
M2 
e
Windings for High Field Magnets
~
In this case the field is limited by the lowest of Bfailure and Bheat: B  min( Bfailure , Bheat ) e.g.

~
σy ρ Cp Ωe Bfailure Bheat B
Material (MPa) (Mg/m3) (J/kgK) (10-8Ωm) (wb/m2) (wb/m2) (wb/m2)
High conductivity Cu 250 8.94 385 1.7 35 113 35
Cu-15%Nb composite 780 8.90 368 2.4 62 92 62
HSLA steel 1600 7.85 450 25 89 30 30
Pulse length = 10 ms

1/ 2
 2 d f ( ,  ) 
Bfailure  o y 
 r 
  o rdf f ( ,  )Tmax 
M1     M 2  CC  M2

1/ 2
 2t pulse 
 o2d 2Cp Tmax 
Bheat    f ( ,  )

 t pulse e  Thus defining the Coupling Line
 Windings for High Field Magnets
10000
Search Region:
Ultra-short pulse Search Region:
Cp 
short pulse M1   y M2 
HSLA steels e
Cu-Be-Co-Ni

1000 Cu-Al2O3
Index M 1 (MPa)

Cu-Nb
Search Region: Material Comment
Be-Coppers long pulse
Continuous and long
Cu-Zr pulse Best choice for low field,
High purity coppers long pulse magnets (heat
Pure Silver limited)
100 Cu-4Sn
GP coppers
Short pulse
Cu-Al2O3 composites Best choice for high field,
HC Coppers
H-C Cu-Cd alloys short pulse magnets (heat
Cu H-C Cu-Zr alloys and strength limited)
Al-S150.1
H-C Cu-Cr alloys
Drawn Cu-Nb comp’s

10 Ultra short pulse,

ultra high field Best choice for high field,
100 1000 10000 short pulse magnets
Cu-Be-Co-Ni alloys
Index M 2 (10-8 m3/J) HSLA steels (strength limited)