Introduction To R: Session 2

INTRODUCTION TO R Session 2
RECAP : CHECK YOUR

FUNCTIONS
Functionality of the function Name the function
Takes the absolute value of x
Takes the logarithm of x with base y; if base is not specified, returns
the natural logarithm
Returns the exponential of x
Returns the square root of x
Returns the factorial of x (x!)
To round a number to two digits after the decimal point, for
To round numbers to multiples of 10, 100, and so on
To specify the number of significant digits to be retained
To calculate the cosine of an angle of 120 degrees
CHECK YOUR FUNCTIONS
Functionality of the function Name the function
Takes the absolute value of x abs(x)
Takes the logarithm of x with base y; if base is not specified, log(x, base=y)
returns the natural logarithm
Returns the exponential of x exp(x)
Returns the square root of x sqrt(x)
Returns the factorial of x (x!) factorial (x)
To round a number to two digits after the decimal point, for round(123.456, digits = 2)
To round numbers to multiples of 10, 100, and so on round(-123.456, digits = -2)
To specify the number of significant digits to be retained signif(-123.456, digits = 4
To calculate the cosine of an angle of 120 degrees cos(120 * pi / 180)
To know the length of a vector length()
VECTORS
VECTORS
1. A vector is a one‐dimensional set of values, all the same type.
2. It’s the smallest unit you can work with in R.
3. A single value is technically a vector as well — a vector with only one element.
4. In mathematics vectors are almost always used with numerical values, but in R
they also can include other types of data, like character strings
VECTORS
R is a vector‐based language. You can think of a vector as a row or column of numbers or text.
A vector is a simple tool to store data. The list of numbers {1,2,3,4,5}, for example, could be a
vector.
For example, you can store your daily gains and losses in the casinos.
Unlike most other programming languages, R allows you to apply functions to the whole
vector in a single operation without the need for an explicit loop.
It is time to illustrate vectors with some real R code. First, assign the values 1:5 to a vector
called x:
> x <- 1:5
>x
[1] 1 2 3 4 5
VECTORS
Next, add the value 2 to each element in the vector x:
>x+2
[1] 3 4 5 6 7
You can also add one vector to another. To add the values 6:10 elementwise to x, you
do the following:
> x + 6:10
To do this in most other programming language would require an explicit
[1] 7 9 11 13 15 loop to run through each value of x. However, R is designed to perform
many operations in a single step. This functionality is one of the features
that make R so useful — and powerful — for data analysis
NUMERIC AND CHARACTER
VECTORS
In R, you create a vector with the combine function c(). You place the vector
elements separated by a comma between the parentheses. For example:
numeric_vector <- c(1, 2, 3)
character_vector <- c("a", "b", "c")
PRACTICE !
Question Solution
Create a numeric, character and Boolean numeric_vector <- c(1, 10, 49)
vector
character_vector <- c("a", "b", "c")
boolean_vector <-c(TRUE,FALSE)
CREATE TWO VECTORS
For roulette_vector:
For poker_vector:
On Monday you lost $24
On Monday you won $140
Tuesday you lost $50
Tuesday you lost $50
Wednesday you won $100
Wednesday you won $20
Thursday you lost $350
Thursday you lost $120
Friday you won $10
Friday you won $240
To be able to use this data in R, you decide to create the variables poker_vector and
roulette_vector
# Poker winnings from Monday to Friday

poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# Roulette winnings from Monday to Friday

roulette_vector <- c(-24, -50, 100, -350, 10)
NAMING A VECTOR
Each vector element refers to a day of the week but it is hard to tell which element belongs to
which day. It would be nice if you could show that in the vector itself. You can give a name to
the elements of a vector with the names() function.
Have a look at this example:
some_vector <- c("John Doe", "poker player")

names(some_vector) <- c("Name", "Profession")
This code first creates a vector some_vector and then gives the two elements a name. The first
element is assigned the name Name while the second element is labeled Profession. Printing the
contents to the console yields following output:
print(some_vector)
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)

# Assign days as names of poker_vector

names(poker_vector) <- c("Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday")
#Display the values

print (roulette_vector)
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
-24 -50 100 -350 10
# Assign days as names of roulette_vector

names (roulette_vector) <- c ("Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday")
#Display the values

print(poker_vector)
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
140 -50 20 -120 240
REUSING VALUES IN A
VECTOR
You can also create a variable that contains the days of the week. This way you can
use and re-use it.
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# The variable days_vector
days_vector <- c("Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday")
# Assign the names of the day to roulette_vector and poker_vector
names(poker_vector) <-
names(roulette_vector) <-
PERFORMING CALCULATIONS
ON VECTORS
It is important to know that if you sum two vectors in R, it takes the element-wise
sum. For example, the following three statements are completely equivalent:
c(1, 2, 3) + c(4, 5, 6)
c(1 + 4, 2 + 5, 3 + 6)
c(5, 7, 9)
You can also do the calculations with variables that represent vectors:
a <- c(1, 2, 3)
b <- c(4, 5, 6)
c <- a + b
SOLVE
Create two vectors A_vector and B_vector
A_vector consists of values 1,2,3
B_vector consists of values 4,5,6
Create a variable total_variable to add these two vectors and display their values
A_vector <- c(1, 2, 3)

B_vector <- c(4, 5, 6)
# Take the sum of A_vector and B_vector
total_vector <- A_vector+B_vector
# Print out total_vector
print(total_vector)
CALCULATING TOTALS
Calculate the overall profit or loss per day of the week. The total daily profit is the
sum of the profit/loss you realized on poker per day, and the profit/loss you realized
on roulette per day.
# Poker and roulette winnings from Monday to Friday:

poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
names(poker_vector) <- days_vector
names(roulette_vector) <- days_vector
# Assign to total_daily how much you won/lost on each day
total_daily <- c(roulette_vector+poker_vector)
CALCULATE TOTAL WINNINGS
1. Assign the values to poker vector (140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
2. Assign the values to roulette vector (-24, -50, 100, -350, 10)
3. Create a days_vector and assign a the days of the week to it
4. Assign the corresponding of poker_vector and roulette_vector to days_vector to
refer to elements in the vector by days of the week
5. Calculate the total winnings for poker as total_poker
6. Calculate the total winnings for roulette as total_roulette
7. Calculate the total winnings of both as total_week
8. Print the result/ Display the total winnings of the week
TOTAL WINNINGS
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# Total winnings with poker
total_poker <- sum(poker_vector)
# Total winnings with roulette
total_roulette <- sum(roulette_vector)
# Total winnings overall
total_week <- sum(total_roulette + total_poker)
# Print out total_weekprint(total_week)
COMPARISON OF TOTAL
WINNINGS
1. Assign the values to poker vector (140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
2. Assign the values to roulette vector (-24, -50, 100, -350, 10)
3. Create a days_vector and assign a the days of the week to it
4. Assign the corresponding of poker_vector and roulette_vector to days_vector to refer to elements in
the vector by days of the week
5. Calculate the total winnings for poker as total_poker
6. Calculate the total winnings for roulette as total_roulette
7. Calculate the total winnings of both as total_week
8. Print the result/ Display the total winnings of the week
9. Check if your total gains in poker are higher than for roulette by using a comparison. Simply print
out the result of this comparison.
TOTAL WINNINGS
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# Total winnings with poker
total_poker <- sum(poker_vector)
# Total winnings with roulette
total_roulette <- sum(roulette_vector)
# Check if you realized higher total gains in poker than in roulette
total_poker > total_roulette
TO ACCESS MEMBERS OF THE
VECTOR
To select elements of a vector (and later matrices, data frames, ...), you can use
square brackets. Between the square brackets, you indicate what elements to select.
For example, to select the first element of the vector, you type poker_vector[1]. To
select the second element of the vector, you type poker_vector[2], etc. Notice that
the first element in a vector has index 1, not 0 as in many other programming
languages.
ACCESS THE THIRD ELEMENT
IN THE VECTOR
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
Assign the poker results of Thursday to the variable poker_thursday.
# Define a new variable based on a selection
poker_thursday <- poker_vector[4]

MULTIPLE SELECTIONS IN
THE VECTOR
To select multiple elements from a vector, you can add square brackets
at the end of it. You can indicate between the brackets what elements
should be selected. For example: suppose you want to select the first
and the fifth day of the week: use the vector c(1, 5) between the square
brackets. For example, the code below selects the first and fifth element
of poker_vector:
poker_vector[c(1, 5)]
ASSIGN THE POKER RESULTS OF
TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY AND THURSDAY
TO THE VARIABLE POKER_MIDWEEK.
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
poker_midweek <- poker_vector[c(2,3,4)]

VECTORS
Selecting multiple elements of poker_vector with c(2, 3, 4) is not very convenient.
An easier way to do this is: c(2, 3, 4) can be abbreviated to2:4, which generates a
vector with all natural numbers from 2 up to 4.
So, another way to find the mid-week results is poker_vector[2:4]. Notice how the
vector 2:4 is placed between the square brackets to select element 2 up to 4.
Assign to roulette_selection_vector the roulette results from Tuesday up to Friday;
make use of : if it makes things easier for you.
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
roulette_selection_vector <- roulette_vector[2:5]

Another way to tackle the previous exercise is by using the names of the vector
elements (Monday, Tuesday, ...) instead of their numeric positions. For example,
poker_vector [“Monday”]
will select the first element of poker_vector since "Monday" is the name of that first
element. Just like you did in the previous exercise with numerics, you can also use
the element names to select multiple elements, for example:
poker_vector [(“Monday”, “Tuesday”)]

QUESTION
Select the first three elements in poker_vector by using their
names: "Monday", "Tuesday" and "Wednesday". Assign the result of the selection
to poker_start.
Calculate the average of the values in poker_start with the mean() function. Simply
print out the result so you can inspect it.
SOLUTION
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# Select poker results for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday
poker_start <- poker_vector[c("Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday")]
# Calculate the average of the elements in poker_start
mean(poker_start)
print(poker_start)
USING COMPARATORS
By making use of comparison operators, we can approach the previous question in a more proactive
way.
The (logical) comparison operators known to R are:
< for less than
> for greater than
<= for less than or equal to
>= for greater than or equal to
== for equal to each other
!= not equal to each other
6 > 5 returns TRUE. The nice thing about R is that you can use these comparison operators also on
vectors. For example:
> c(4, 5, 6) > 5
[1] FALSE FALSE TRUE
This command tests for every element of the vector if the condition stated by the comparison operator
is TRUE or FALSE.
EXERCISE
Check which elements in poker_vector are positive (i.e. > 0) and assign this
to selection_vector.
Print out selection_vector so you can inspect it. The printout tells you whether you
won (TRUE) or lost (FALSE) any money for each day.
SOLUTION
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# Which days did you make money on poker?
selection_vector <- (poker_vector)>0
# Print out selection_vector
print(selection_vector)
EXERCISE SOLUTION
Use selection_vector in square brackets to assign the amounts that you won on the profitable
days to the variable poker_winning_days.

poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
names(poker_vector) <- days_vectornames(roulette_vector) <- days_vector
# Which days did you make money on poker?
selection_vector <- poker_vector > 0
# Select from poker_vector these days
poker_winning_days <-poker_vector[selection_vector]
Now, you would like to know not only the days on which you won, but also how
much you won on those days.
Select the desired elements, by putting selection_vector between the square brackets
that follow poker_vector:
poker_vector[selection_vector]
R knows what to do when you pass a logical vector in square brackets: it will only
select the elements that correspond to TRUE in selection_vector.
EXERCISE
Use selection_vector in square brackets to assign the amounts that you won
on the profitable days to the variable poker_winning_days.
EXERCISE
Create the variable selection_vector, this time to see if you made profit with roulette
for different days.
Assign the amounts that you made on the days that you ended positively for roulette
to the variable roulette_winning_days. This vector thus contains the positive
winnings of roulette_vector.
SOLUTION
poker_vector <- c(140, -50, 20, -120, 240)
# Which days did you make money on roulette?
selection_vector <-roulette_vector>0
# Select from roulette_vector these days
roulette_winning_days <- roulette_vector[selection_vector]
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS AND
VECTORS One vector represents the number of baskets
Granny made during the six games of the
> baskets.of.Granny <- c(12, 4, 4, 6, 9, 3) basketball season, and the other one represents
> baskets.of.Geraldine <- c(5, 3, 2, 2, 12, 9) the number of baskets her friend Geraldine
made
Granny and Geraldine decide to raise money for the Make‐A‐Wish Foundation and asked people to
make a donation for every basket they made. Granny requested $120 per basket, and Geraldine
asked for $145 per basket. How do you calculate the total donations that they collected for each
game?
> Granny.money <- baskets.of.Granny * 120

> Geraldine.money <- baskets.of.Geraldine * 145
To get the total money these ladies earned in each game, you simply do this:
> Granny.money + Geraldine.money

[1] 2165 915 770 1010 2820 1665
> baskets.of.Granny * 120 + baskets.of.Geraldine * 145

[1] 2165 915 770 1010 2820 1665
CHECK THE LENGTH OF THE
VECTOR
If you want to know only how long a vector is, you can simply use the length()
function, as follows:
> length (baskets.of.Granny)
[1] 6
PRACTICE EXERCISE - 1
u <- 4
v <- 8
Use the elementary arithmetic operators +, -, *, /, and ^ to:

1.add u and v
2.subtract v from u
3.multiply u by v
4.divide u by v
5.raise u to the power of v
PRACTICE EXERCISE -2
u <- c(4, 5, 6)
v <- c(1, 2, 3)
Without using R, write down what you expect as the result of the same operations as in
the previous exercise:
1. add u and v
2. subtract v from u
3. multiply u by v
4. divide u by v
5. raise u to the power of v
PRACTICE EXERCISE - 3
How about using vectors that differ in length?
u <- c(5, 6, 7, 8)
v <- c(2, 3, 4)
Without using R, write down what you expect as the result of the same operations as in the
previous exercise:
1. add u and v
2. subtract v from u
3. multiply u by v
4. divide u by v
5. raise u to the power of v
MATRICES
CREATING A MATRIX
Creating a matrix is almost as easy as writing the word—you simply use the matrix()function.
You do have to give R a little bit more information, though.
R needs to know which values you want to put in the matrix and how you want to put them in.
The matrix()function has a couple arguments to control this:
1. Data is a vector of values you want in the matrix
2. ncol takes a single number that tells R how many columns you want
3. nrow takes a single number that tells R how many rows you want
4. byrow takes a logical value that tells R whether you want to fill the matrix row-wise
(TRUE) or column-wise (FALSE). Column-wise is the default.
TRY CREATE A MATRIX
> first.matrix <- matrix(1:12, ncol=4)
> print(first.matrix)
Output:
So, the following code results in a matrix with the numbers 1 through 12, in four columns and three rows.
You do not have to specify both ncol and nrow. If you specify one, R will know automatically what the
other needs to be.
> first.matrix <- matrix(1:12, ncol=4, byrow=TRUE)
> print(first.matrix)
If you want to fill the matrix row by row, you can do so

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INTRODUCTION TO R Session 2

RECAP : CHECK YOUR

# Poker winnings from Monday to Friday

# Roulette winnings from Monday to Friday

some_vector <- c("John Doe", "poker player")

# Roulette winnings from Monday to Friday

# Assign days as names of poker_vector

#Display the values

# Assign days as names of roulette_vector

#Display the values

A_vector <- c(1, 2, 3)

# Poker and roulette winnings from Monday to Friday:

poker_thursday <- poker_vector[4]

poker_midweek <- poker_vector[c(2,3,4)]

roulette_selection_vector <- roulette_vector[2:5]

poker_vector [(“Monday”, “Tuesday”)]

# Poker and roulette winnings from Monday to Friday:

> Granny.money <- baskets.of.Granny * 120

> Granny.money + Geraldine.money

> baskets.of.Granny * 120 + baskets.of.Geraldine * 145

Use the elementary arithmetic operators +, -, *, /, and ^ to:

If you want to fill the matrix row by row, you can do so

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