Academic Writing

What is Academic Writing?

 Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the
intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise.
 Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather
than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under
investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other
professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed
meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.
 It is technical by using vocabulary specific to the discipline. Different disciplines also
have different styles and structures of writing.
 For example, some disciplines, such as in the humanities, expect longer paragraphs, which
include topic sentences to show how your argument is structured.
Planning and Conducting an Academic Writing

 There are some important stage in the project of academic writing:

1. Choosing a topic;
2. Developing a research question;
3. Effective planning of the research;
4. Undertaking a literature survey;
5. Collecting data
Choosing a topic
 There are several ways to choose the topic of the research project:
1. Think about your own interests.
2. Read about an interesting topic and keep asking the question 'Why?’
3. Be extra critical.
4. Look at other writing.
5. Talk to others.
 Remember that a research study can:
1. Replicate an existing study in a different setting;
2. Extend a previous study;
3. Develop or test out a methodology or method;
4. Address a research question in isolation, or within a wider programme of work; or
5. apply a theoretical idea to a real world problem.
 Developing a research question

 Once your topic has been accepted, you need to begin the process of refining the topic and turning it into
something that is focused enough to guide your project. Try describing it as a research problem that sets
out:
1. the issue that you are going to be investigating;
2. your argument or thesis (what you want to prove, disprove, or explore); and
3. the limits of your research (i.e. what you are not going to be investigating).
 Sometimes, you should be willing to revise your research problem as you find out more about your
topic. You may, for example, discover that the data you were hoping to analyze is not available, or you
may encounter a new piece of information or a new concept while undertaking a literature search, that
makes you rethink the basis of your research problem. 
 Effective planning of the research

 A research project is an extended project that asks you to manage your time and undertake a variety of
tasks. Some courses schedule the research project at the end, while others have it running along
concurrently with other modules. Whichever way your course is organized, it is essential that you
create a plan that helps you allocate enough time to each task you have to complete.
 It is very important to be realistic about how long each task is likely to take. Some focused thought at
the beginning, then at the planning stage of each phase, could save hours later on. Write down the
resources needed for each stage. It could be time in the library; the resource of your working hours; or
the use of equipment or room space that needs to be booked in advance.
 Your research plan should also include information about what equipment you will need to complete
your project, and any travel costs or other expenses that you are likely to incur through the pursuit of
your research. You should also think about whether you are dependent on anyone else to complete
your project, and think about what you are going to do if they are unable to help you.
Undertaking a literature survey
 Regardless of whether you have been given a topic or you have developed your own ideas, you
will need to be able to demonstrate the rationale for your research, and to describe how it fits
within the wider research context in your area. To support you in doing this you will need to
undertake a literature review, which is a review of material that has already been published,
either in hard copy or electronically, that may be relevant for your research project. Key tools that
are available to help you, include:
1. Internet search engines, especially ones that offer advanced search features (see 
http://www.google.com/ and http://scholar.google.com/);
2. Your University's Library Catalogue,
3. Electronic journals available via your university library,
4. Bibliographies in any key texts about your topic.
Collecting Data
 For most research projects the data collection phase feels like the most important part. However,
you should avoid jumping straight into this phase until you have adequately defined your research
problem, and the extent and limitations of your research.
 Consider how you are going to store and retrieve your data. You should set up a system that
allows you to:
1. Record data accurately as you collect it;
2. Retrieve data quickly and efficiently;
3. Analyze and compare the data you collect; and
4. Create appropriate outputs for your research e.g. tables and graphs, if appropriate.
 There are many systems that support effective data collection and retrieval, electronic tools like
spreadsheets, databases and bibliographic software, to discipline-specific tools.
The Structure of Academic Writing
 Title page

 A good title is supposed to generate interest and, at the same time, describe what the paper
is about. These two aspects are not always easy to combine. Here are some tips on what to
think about:
1. The title can be original, as long as it is not too complicated.
2. The title should explain the content of the text.
3. Make sure that no one else has used the same title. Use different search engines such as
Google Scholar and DiVA.
4. Preferably divide the title in two parts: one to spark interest and curiosity, and one that is
explanatory.
5. Review the titles of other academic papers and reflect on which of them made you
interested in reading the text.
 Abstract or summary

 An abstract or summary provides a brief account of the main content of an academic

paper. The purpose of the summary is partly to generate interest, and partly to present the
main issue and key results. Most importantly, the summary is to capture what the paper
is about. Shorter papers usually do not require a summary.
 The summary is best written when you have almost completed your project. Only then
will you know what you have actually written. A good idea is to work on a draft summary
alongside your paper, and revise it as you go along. The summary is a difficult text to
write, as it is to cover a lot of content in a small space. But, that is also why it is a useful
text to work on – it forces you to formulate what your project is about.
 Table of contents

 Do not underestimate the importance of this! Instead, see it as an opportunity to give the
reader an idea of what the text is about at an early stage.
 This is done by formulating headings and subheadings that briefly explain the content of
each chapter. 
 Introduction

 The introduction often contains:

1. a background to the topic
2. aim and issue
3. a description of the outline of the text
 An introduction is necessary in order to engage the reader and acquaint them with the
subject, as a soft-start and orientation.
 The aim of the academic paper is usually included in the introduction, you can also provide
a background to the topic and an overview of relevant published research in order to place
the topic in a wider context. The introduction is intended to lead to the research issue of the
paper.
 Background

 This section is to give the reader the necessary background information in order to
understand the context in which your study was conducted. Depending on the scope of the
text, the background is part of the introduction.
 In the background section you can, for example, provide a historical overview and explain
important concepts. For instance, if your paper is on teaching and learning, perhaps you
will want to account for relevant policy documents (the Swedish Education Act,
curriculum, etc.). In contrast, if the topic of your paper concerns medical science, you may
want to account for certain medical terminology or concepts.
 Aim and Issue

 The aim and research issue are the very essence of the introduction. Everything you write
in the introduction, and by extension in your paper, must therefore be related to the aim.
 You may need to break down the issue into one or several research questions.
 Find out about how to formulate the aim, research issue and research questions under Aim,
issue and research questions – delimiting the subject matter in The writing process section.
 Theory
 When presenting the theoretical framework you have applied, it is important that you, with
reference to your aim, justify why the particular theories you selected are relevant.

 WHAT IS THEORY?
 It is not entirely easy to answer the question of what a theory is. Partly because it differs
from one subject to another, and partly because the term has different meanings depending
on the context in which it is mentioned. “I have a theory!” is something you might have
said when believing that you have found a link between two adjacent events. Such use
of the concept works very well in everyday life, but in academic contexts, a theory needs
to be more substantiated than that.
 Method

 Describing your method is an important part of your paper, as this is where much of your
credibility is established. In the method chapter, you are to account for what you have
done, and explain why. You are also to describe how you collected your material and how
you will analyze it, as well as any delimitations you have made.
 The first thing to consider when writing the method chapter is whether the method you
have chosen reflects the aim of your text. You must therefore explain your choice of
method, and how you will apply it to address and answer your research issue or research
question. You are also to describe how the choices you made have affected the validity and
reliability of the study.
 Results, Analysis and Discussion
 One of the most central parts of an academic paper is the reporting of results and
subsequent discussion. This is where you present and analyze your empirical material, that
is, your results.
 Things to consider when writing your results, analysis and discussion:
1. In the results section, you are to present, communicate, account for, organize and
categories.
2. In the analysis section, you are to interpret, compare, explain and contrast, on the basis
of the theories you have chosen.
3. In the discussion section, you are to summaries, generalize, justify, question, take a
position and look to the future.
 Conclusions

 There are different ways of ending an academic paper and these endings may vary in
length. In certain subject areas, one or two sentences will suffice, while in others it may
amount to several pages. Some research require concrete conclusions, while in others it is
more appropriate to end with a summary.
 The most important thing to remember is that the research issue and research questions
determine the appropriate way to end the paper. Also, remember that a research
question which does not receive an unequivocal answer is also a valid result.
 List of references & Appendices

 Your conclusion is to be followed by a list of references. Make sure that you apply the
chosen reference system consistently. We recommend that you proofread your list of
references several times – minor errors are easily missed.
 If your research includes appendices, they are to be placed at the very end of your research.
If you have conducted a survey or interviews, the questionnaire and interview guide are to
be included as appendices.