Babas Samudera Hafwandi - Presentasi Literature UTS - 20201026

TM 6004 – Teknik Pemboran Lanjut
PRESENTASI LITERATUR UTS
Babas Samudra Hafwandi (22220003)

Program Studi Magister Teknik Perminyakan ITB
1
Introduction
This mid term literature presentation is compiled based on the
syllabus of TM 6004 advanced drilling engineering, while the
list of chapters can be seen below:
2
Chapter List
1. Drilling Operation Activity
2. Formation Pressure, Fracture Gradient and Abnormal
Pressure
3. Drilling Fluids, Pressure Losses and Surge, Swab & Slip
Analysis
4. Vertical Well Drillstring Design and Drillstring Inspection.
3
CHAPTER I
DRILLING OPERATION ACTIVITY

4
Outline
1. Field Preparation
2. Drilling Equipment
3. Rotary Drilling Bits
4. Rig Sizing And Selections
5. Drilling Costs Analysis
6. Standard Used on Drilling Operation Activity.
5
10 Biggest Oil And Gas Companies
No Oil and Gas Companies Revenue in 2019
1 Sinopec $432.54 Bn
2 Royal Dutch Shell $382.97 Bn
3 Saudi Aramco $356 Bn
4 PetroChina $347.76 Bn
5 BP $296.97 Bn
6 Exxon Mobil $275.54 Bn
7 Total $185.98 Bn
8 Chevron $157.21 Bn
9 Rosneft $132.73 Bn
10 Gazprom $129.41 Bn
Courtesy : Thomson Reuters, Corporate Data

6
1. Field Preparation
• The drill site must be prepared to accommodate the rig and
equipment.
• The operator clears and levels land, builds access roads, and
digs the reserve pits.
• The operator will often line the pit with thick plastic sheeting
to prevent any contaminated water or other materials from
seeping into the ground.
7
1. Field Preparation (Continued)
• Since the contractor needs a source of fresh water for the
drilling mud and other purposes, the operator some times
drills a water well before moving the rig onto the location.
• If other sources are available, the water may be piped or
trucked on the site.
8
1. Field Preparation (Continued)
• At the exact spot on the surface where the well will be, the
crew digs a rectangular pit called a cellar.
• The cellar provides room beneath the rig to install drilling
equipment that will be needed later.
9
2. Drilling Equipment
Drilling rigs are used to construct the well. This includes

drilling the hole, lowering and cementing the casing, and
providing the means to perform various auxiliary functions
such as logging and well testing.
10
2. Drilling Equipment (Continued)
• Modern rigs have complex equipment and require
experienced personnel for efficient operations.
• If improperly selected, the rig can be the cause of low
penetration rates, formation damage due to poor solids
control, and, ultimately, high well costs.
11
• Proper rig selection is important for the safety, efficiency, and
cost of the well.
• The correct procedure for rig selection is to consider the
various loads that will be placed on the equipment and to
select the most cost-effective rig that will satisfy these
requirements.
12
• Drilling contractors provide detailed rig specifications for
this purpose.
• When these specifications are compared with the well
prognosis, the proper rig can be selected.
13
• Drilling rigs have six basic systems.
• During drilling operations, all six systems are necessary and
there is high interaction between them.
• Traditionally, rig systems are classified as:
14
1. Power system
2. Hoisting system
3. Circulating system
4. Rotary system
5. Well-control system
6. Well-monitoring system.
15
2.1. Power System
• Drilling rigs have high power requirements.
• Total power requirements for most rigs are from 1,000 to
3,000 hp (750 to 2,200 kW).
• Equipment that requires power includes the drawworks, mud
pumps, rotary system, and life-support system.
• The power loading may be continuous or intermittent.
16
2.1. Power System (Continued)
• The power system on a drilling rig usually consists of a prime
mover as the source of power and some means to transmit the
power to the end-use equipment.
• The prime movers used in the current drilling industry are
diesel engines. Most rig power is consumed by the hoisting
and fluid-circulating systems.
17
2.1. Power System (Continued)
• The other rig systems have much smaller power
requirements.
• Since the hoisting and circulating systems generally are not
used simultaneously, the same engines can perform both
functions.
• Total power requirements for most rigs are from 1,000 to
3,000 hp (750 to 2,200 kW).
18
2.2. Hoisting System
• The hoisting system is a vital component of the rig
equipment.
• It provides a means for vertical movement of pipe in the well
(i.e., to lower or raise drillstrings, casings, and other
equipment into or out of the well).
• The principal items in the hoisting system are as follows:
19
2.2. Hoisting System (Continued)
1. Drawworks
2. Block and tackle
3. Drilling line
4. Derrick and substructure.
20
2.2.1. Drawworks
• The drawworks is the equipment that uses the energy from
the power system to apply a force to the cable.
• In practical terms, it reels in the cable (drilling line) on the
drum to lift the pipe.
• In addition, it allows the cable to be spooled out as the pipe is
lowered into the well.
21
2.2.2. Block and Tackle
• The block and tackle is the primary link between the
drawworks and the loads that will be lowered into or raised
out of the wellbore.
• It is composed of the crown block, the traveling block, and
the drilling line.
22
2.2.2. Block and Tackle (Continued)
• The principal function of the block and tackle is to provide a
mechanical advantage, which permits easier handling of large
loads.
23
Crown
Block
Fast Lane Dead Line
Travelling Block
Storage
Anc Reel
hor
Drawworks Load
Figure I.1. Schematic of drawworks and block and tackle

(Bourgoyne et al. 1986). 24
•API
RP9B (2005) contains the following standard efficiency
relation:
……………………..……………….(I.1)
25
•where:

= block-and-tackle efficiency (dimensionless)

K = friction factor (approximately 1.04)
NL = number of lines strung (dimensionless)
NSh = number of rolling sheaves (normally, N Sh = NL).
26
Table I.1. Efficiency factors for block-and-tackle system (K = 1.04)

(Bourgoyne et al. 1986).
Number of lines, NL Efficiency,
4 0.908
6 0.874
8 0.842
10 0.811
12 0.782
14 0.755
27
2.2.3. Drilling Line
• Drilling rigs have many applications for wire rope.

• The more common uses are as drilling lines and guideline
tensioners.
28
2.2.3. Drilling Line
• The drilling line connects to the drawworks and the dead line
anchor.
• It is pulled through the crown and traveling block sheaves so
the traveling block can be raised or lowered as necessary.
29
2.2.3. Drilling Line (Continued)
• The crown block and traveling block consist of sheaves

designed for use with wire rope.
• The crown block is stationary and is located at the top of the
derrick.
30
• The traveling block is free to move and has a hook, bails, and
elevators attached to the bottom for latching to the pipe. Both
blocks have 4–12 sheaves.
• The number of lines strung varies with load, with fewer on
shallow wells and maximum for heavy loads.
31
• Wire rope is made from cold-drawn carbon steel of various

grades, depending on the strength required.
• API Spec 9A/ISO 10425 (2004) covers wire rope grades and
construction.
• The classification of the various grades is as follows:
32
1.Extra improved plow steel (EIPS)

2.Improved plow steel (IPS)
3.Plow steel (PS)
4.Mild plow steel (MPS)
33
• The nominal strength of wire rope depends on the materials

used in construction, the number of strands and wires, and
the size of the rope.
• The grade of steel utilized in the construction is a key factor
in ultimate breaking strength.
34
• The traveling block is free to move and has a hook, bails, and
elevators attached to the bottom for latching to the pipe. Both
blocks have 4–12 sheaves.
• The number of lines strung varies with load, with fewer on
shallow wells and maximum for heavy loads.
35
2.2.4. Derrick and Substructure
• The derrick and substructure play an important role in

drilling operations.
• The derick provides the height necessary for the hoisting
system to raise and lower the pipe.
36
2.2.4. Derrick and Substructure (Continued)
• The greater the height, the longer the section of pipe that can
be handled and, thus, the faster a long string of pipe can be
inserted into or removed from the hole.
37
• Derricks can handle sections called stands, which are

composed of two, three, or four joints of drillpipe.
• Because common drillpipes are between 8 and 10 m long
(approximately 26 to 33 ft), a derrick designed to handle
three-drillpipe stands will be taller than a 10-story building.
38
• The substructure provides the height required for the blowout

preventer stack on the wellhead below the rig floor.
• The derrick and the substructure must have enough strength
to support all loads, including the hook load, pipe set in the
derrick, and wind loads.
39
2.3. Circulating Systems
The fluid-circulating system provides hydraulic power to the

drilling fluid so that it can be pumped from surface into the
drillstring, travel all the way down the bottom of the hole, and
then return to surface through the annulus, carrying the rock
cuttings produced by the action of the bit against the rock.
40
Figure I.2. Schematic diagram of circulation Bulk Storage
system (Bourgoyne, et al, 1986).
Mud Pump
Centrifugal Mixing Hoppers
Stand Pipe Pump Desilter
Chemical
Tank
Desilter
Swivel
Degasser
Shale Earthen Pits
Shaker
Drillstring
Steel Tank
Annulus
Bit 41
2.3.1 Pump Suction Design
• Pump suction requirements are an often-neglected
consideration in mud-pump planning, which can seriously
reduce the efficiency of the pump.
42
2.3.1 Pump Suction Design (Continued)
• If the mud pump cannot gain access to the proper volume of
mud as needed, its output will be less than expected for a
particular pump rate.
• The two common types of suction systems are atmospheric
and supercharged.
43
• The pump suction system common in early drilling
operations used atmospheric pressure in conjunction with the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the mud pits to force the
drilling fluid into the suction valves of the pump.
• The hydrostatic pressure must overcome inertia forces and
friction pressures of the fluid in the lines.
44
• Obviously, long suction lines with many bends significantly
decrease the effectiveness of the system.
• In addition, gas cut or high viscosity fluids impede the
system’s good operation.
45
• A more successful method of fulfilling mud-pump suction
needs is the use of centrifugal pumps as boosters
(superchargers or prechargers).
46
• The addition of a supercharger offers many advantages
including elimination of shock loads, smoother operation,
increased bearing life, and higher-speed operation.
• The supercharger also enables the mud pump to better handle
gas-cut or aerated mud, giving better filling.
47
2.3.2. Pulsation Dampners
• Improved pumping characteristics can be expected when a

pulsation dampener (surge chamber) is added to the discharge
line.
• The surge chamber contains a gas in the upper portion, which
is separated from the drilling fluid by a flexible diaphragm.
48
2.3.2. Pulsation Dampners (Continued)
• The surge chamber greatly dampens the pressure surges

developed by the positive-displacement pump.
• A dampener helps to utilize most of the available pump
horsepower.
• It accomplishes this by increasing the speed at which the
pump can run without the problems of knocking and
accompanying pressure surges.
49
2.3.3. Centrifugal Pumps
• The centrifugal pump plays an important role in the

circulating system.
• Among its applications are supercharging the rig pumps,
pumping fluid to mud mixing equipment and to the solids-
control equipment, and performing ancillary functions such
as pumping water and cleaning tanks.
50
2.3.3. Centrifugal Pumps (Continued)
Figure I.3. Centrifugal pump diagram (Sahdev. 2008).

51
2.3.4. Drilling Fluid Handling Equipment
• The drilling fluid is handled by a variety of equipment during

the normal drilling process.
• Each item must be evaluated to determine if it will meet the
job requirements for the upcoming well.
52
2.3.4. Drilling Fluid Handling Equipment
(Continued)
• The handling equipment includes the mud pits (tanks for
drilling fluid storage), solids control equipment, gas control
system (degasser), and chemical treatment systems.
53
2.4. Rotary System
• The rotary system includes all of the equipment used to
achieve bit rotation.
• Originally, the main driver in the system of all rigs was the
rotary table.
• The main parts of the rotary system with a rotary table are the
swivel, kelly, and drillstring.
54
2.4.1. Swivel
• The rotary swivel serves two important functions in the
drilling process.
• It is a connecting point between the circulating system and
the rotary system.
55
2.4.1. Swivel (Continued)
• It also provides a fluid seal that must absorb rotational wear
while holding pressure.
• The upper section of the swivel has a bail for connection to
the elevator hook, and the gooseneck of the swivel provides a
downward pointing connection for the rotary hose.
56
2.4.2. Kelly
• The kelly is the first section of pipe below the swivel.
• The outside cross section of the kelly is square or (most
commonly) hexagonal to permit it to be gripped easily for
turning.
57
2.4.2. Kelly (Continued)
• Torque is transmitted to the kelly through kelly bushings,
which fit inside the master bushing of the rotary table.
• The kelly thread is right-handed on the lower end and left-
handed on the upper end to permit normal right-hand rotation
of the drillstring.
58
Figure I.4. Rotary Swivel
(Bourgoyne, et al, 1986).
59
2.4.3. Topdrive
• Modern rigs use a topdrive to replace the kelly, kelly
bushings, and rotary table.
• Drillstring rotation is achieved through hydraulic or electric
motors.
• Topdrives are suspended from the hook and can travel up and
down the derrick. This will allow drilling to be done with
stands of pipes, instead of single joints, which will save
considerable time.
60
2.4.3. Topdrive (Continued)
Figure I.5. Top Drive (Bull 20310., 2008).

61
2.4.4. Drillstring
• The drillstring connects the surface equipment with the drill

bit at the bottom of the well.
• The rotary table, rotates the drillstring and, consequently,
rotation is transmitted to the bit.
62
2.4.4. Drillstring (Continued)
• The drillstring is basically composed of two major portions,

the drillpipes and the bottomhole assembly (BHA) are
specified by outside diameter, weight per foot, steel grade,
and length range.
• Drillpipes are classified by API in the following length
ranges: Range 1 is 18 to 22 ft (5.5 to 6.7 m), Range 2 is 27 to
30 ft (8 to 9 m), and Range 3 is 38 to 45 ft (12 to 14 m).
63
• Range 2 drillpipe is used most commonly. Since each joint of

pipe has a unique length, the length of each joint must be
measured carefully and recorded to allow a determination of
total well depth during drilling operations.
• The drillpipe joints are fastened together in the drillstring by
means of tool joints.
64
• The BHA is the lower section of the drillstring.

• Even though a BHA may have many different tubulars
depending on the complexity of the operation, most of the
BHA is composed of drill collars.
• The drill collars are thick-walled, heavy steel tubulars used to
apply weight to the bit.
65
• The buckling tendency of the relatively thin walled drillpipe

is too great to use it for this purpose.
• The smaller clearance between the borehole and the drill
collars helps to keep the hole straight.
• Stabilizers often are used in the drill collar string to assist in
keeping the drill collars centralized.
66
Table 1.2. Dimensions and strength of API seamless internal
upset drillpipe (Bourgoyne et.al 1986).
67
Box
External Upset
Elevator External
Shoulder Upset Runout
Pin ID Pipe Body
Internal Figure I.6.

Box ID Weld Line Upset
a) Drillpipe tool joint; (b
Pin drillpipe; (c) drill collar
(Aadnoy, et al, 2009).
Makeup
a Shoulder b c 68
2.5. Well Control Systems
• The well control system prevents the uncontrolled flow of
formation fluids from the wellbore.
• When the bit penetrates a permeable formation that has a
fluid pressure in excess of the hydrostatic pressure exerted by
the drilling fluid, formation fluids will begin displacing the
drilling fluid from the well.
• The flow of formation fluids into the well in the presence of
drilling fluid is called a kick.
69
2.5. Well Control Systems (Continued)
The well control system enables the driller to:

1. Detect the kick
2. Close the well at the surface
3. Circulate the well under pressure to remove the formation
fluids and increase the mud density.
70
The well control system enables the driller to:

1. Detect the kick
2. Close the well at the surface
3. Circulate the well under pressure to remove the formation
fluids and increase the mud density.
71
4. Move the drillstring up and down with the well closed

5. Divert the flow away from rig personnel and equipment.
72
Annular
Preventer Annular
Preventer
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Blind Ram
Chokeline Kill line
Chokeline Kill line
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Well
Well
Figure I.7. BOP Stack (Mitchell, et al, 2011). 73

2.6. Well Monitoring System
• An optimal drilling operation requires close control over a

number of parameters.
• Even though the drilling program may have recommendations
related to drilling parameters.
• It is mandatory that rig personnel (e.g., driller, drilling
supervisor, drilling and mud engineer) keep track of the
operation development at all times in order to make necessary
adjustments and to quickly detect and correct drilling problems.
74
2.6. Well Monitoring System (Continued)
• A modern rig will have devices that display and
simultaneously record most of the important parameters
related to the drilling operation.
• Parameters that cannot be determined automatically, such as
mud properties, will be measured, recorded, and controlled
constantly as well. Some of the most important parameters
include:
75
1. Well depth
2. Weight on bit
3. Rotary speed
4. Rotary torque.
76
5. Pump pressure
6. Pump rate
7. Fluid-flow rate
8. Flow return
9. Rate of penetration.
77
• Hookload
• Fluid properties (e.g., density, temperature, viscosity, gas and
sand content, salinity, solids content)
• Pit level.
78
3. Rotary Drilling Bits
• A drilling bit is the major tool that conducts the cutting
action located at the end of the drillstring.
• The bit generates the drilling action by scraping, chipping,
gouging, or grinding the rock.
• Drilling fluid is circulated through the bit to remove the
drilled cuttings generated inside the wellbore.
79
3. Rotary Drilling Bits (Continued)
• There are many variations of bit designs available.
• The selection of the bit for a particular application will
depend on the type of formation to be drilled as well as the
expected operating conditions during the drilling process.
• The performance of a bit is a function of several operating
parameters including WOB, RPM, mud properties, and
hydraulic efficiency.
80
3. Rotary Drilling Bits (Continued)
• The drilling engineer must be aware of the design
variations, the impact of the operating conditions on the
performance of the bit, and the wear generated on the bit in
order to be able to select the most appropriate bit for the
formation to be drilled.
81
3.1. Bit Types
1. Roller Cone Bits
1.Milled Tooth Bit
2.Insert Bit
2. Fixed Cutter Bits
3. PDC
4. Impregnated-Bit
5. Diamond Bits.
82
3.1.1. Roller Cone Bits
• Roller-cone bits are classified as milled-tooth or insert. In
milled-tooth bits, the cutting structure is milled from the steel
making up the cone.
• In insert bits, the cutting structure is a series of inserts
pressed into the cones.
• Roller cone bits have a large variety of tooth designs and
bearing types, and are suited for a wide variety of formation
types and applications.
83
3.1.1. Roller Cone Bits (Continued)
• The drilling action of a roller-cone bit depends to some extent
on the offset of its cones.
• The offset of the bit is a measure of how much the cones are
moved so that their axes do not intersect at a common point
on the centerline of the hole.
• Offsetting causes the cone to stop rotating periodically as the
bit is turned and scrapes the hole bottom much like a drag bit.
84
• This action tends to increase drilling speed in most formation
types.
• However, it also promotes faster tooth wear in abrasive
formations.
• Cone offsets vary between 0.5 and 0.375 in. for soft-
formation roller-cone bits, and are usually between 0.0325
and 0.0 in. for hard formation bits.
85
• The shape of the bit teeth also has a large effect on the
drilling action of a roller cone bit.
• Long, widely spaced steel teeth are used for drilling soft
formations.
• As the rock type becomes harder, the tooth length and the
cone offset must be reduced to prevent tooth breakage.
86
• The drilling action of a bit with zero cone offset is essentially
a crushing action.
• The smaller teeth also allow more room for the construction
of stronger bearings.
87
• Because formations are not homogeneous, sizable variations
exist in their drillability and this has a large impact on cutting
structure geometry.
• For a given WOB, wide spacing between inserts or teeth
results in improved penetration and relatively higher lateral
loading on the inserts or teeth.
88
• Closely spacing inserts or teeth reduces loading at the
expense of reduced penetration.
• The design of inserts and teeth themselves depends largely on
the hardness and drillability of the formation.
89
Figure 1.8. Soft (left) and hard (right) formation roller cone
bits (Wamsley and Ford 2007). 90
3.1.2. Fixed Cutter Bits
• The major difference between fixed cutter bits and roller
cone bits is that fixed cutter bits do not have any moving
parts, which is an advantage, especially with small hole sizes
in which space is not available for the cone / bearing systems
with proper teeth structure.
91
3.1.2. Fixed Cutter Bits (Continued)
• The introduction of hardfacing to the surface of the blades
and the design of fluid passageways greatly improved the
performance of fixed cutter bits.
• Because of the dragging/scraping action of the fixed-cutter
bits, high RPM and low WOB are applied.
92
3.1.2. Fixed Cutter Bits (Continued)
• In general, fixed-cutter bits are categorized under two groups:
PDC bits (fail the rock through a shearing process) and
diamond bits made up of impregnated, natural diamond and
TSP elements (fail the rock through a grinding process).
93
3.1.2.1. PDC Bits
• PDC bits use small disks of synthetic diamond to provide the
scraping/cutting surface.
• The small discs may be manufactured in any size and shape
and are not sensitive to failure along cleavage planes as
natural diamond bits are.
94
3.1.2.1. PDC Bits (Continued)
• PDC bits have been run very successfully in many fields all
around the world.
• TSP bits are manufactured similarly to PDC bits, except TSP
bits can resist much higher operating temperatures than PDC
bits.
95
Figure I.9. PDC Bit (Mitchell, et al, 2011). 96
3.1.2.2. Impregnated Bit
• Impregnated-bit bodies are PDC matrix materials that are
similar to those used in cutters.
• The working portions of impregnated bits are unique, such
that they contain matrix impregnated with diamonds.
97
3.1.2.2. Impregnated Bit (Continued)
• Both natural and synthetic diamonds are prone to breakage
from impact.
• When embedded in a bit body, they are supported to the
greatest extent possible and are less susceptible to breakage.
• However, because the largest diamonds are relatively small,
cut depth must be small and ROP must be achieved through
increased rotational speed.
98
Figure I.10. Impregnated Bit (Mitchell, et al, 99
3.1.2.3 Diamond Bits
• The term “diamond bit” normally refers to bits incorporating
surface-set natural diamonds as cutters.
• Diamond bits are used in abrasive formations.
• The cutting action of a diamond bit is developed by scraping
away the rock.
• Diamond bits drill by a high-speed plowing action that breaks
the cementation between rock grains.
100
3.1.2.3 Diamond Bits (Continued)
• Fine cuttings are developed in low volumes per rotation. To
achieve satisfactory ROPs with diamond bits, they must,
accordingly, be rotated at high speeds.
101
Figure I.11. Diamond Bit (Mitchell, et al, 2011). 102
4. Rig Sizing and Selection
The major components that need to be selected and sized for

the purpose of rig sizing are:
1. Hoisting
2. Rotating equipment
3. Circulating system
4. Tubular goods.
103
4. Rig Sizing and Selection (Continued)
5. Pressure Control
6. Derrick capacity and substructure
7. Total Power Requirements for the above.
104
5. Drilling Costs Analysis
• Drilling is the most visible of the many faces of the oil
industry and may represent up to 40% of the entire
exploration and development costs of a field.
105
5. Drilling Costs Analysis (Continued)
• Drilling engineers play a major role in well planning, not
only designing the well but also recommending efficient and
safe drilling procedures for routine rig operations such as
drilling fluid treatment, pump operation, bit selection, drilling
parameters, and casing and cement programs.
106
• The final cost of a well depends on many factors, but clearly
good well planning represents a major step toward cost
efficiency.
• In addition, the drilling team should be attentive during well
drilling to keep track of the development of operations and
promptly act if changes are needed.
107
• The most common application of a drilling cost formula is in
evaluating the efficiency of a bit run.
• A large fraction of the time required to complete a well is
spent either drilling or making a trip to replace the bit.
• When enough data are available, it is possible to calculate the
total time required to drill a given depth, the drilling cost
formula is:
108
……………………………..(I.2)
Cf = Drilled cost per unit depth

Cb = The cost of bit
Cr = Fixed operating cost of the rig per unit time.
109
tb = Total rotating time during the bit run

tc = Non-rotating rime during the bit run
tt = trip time
ΔD = The total time required to drill a given depth.
110
5.1. Drilling Cost Prediction
• Drilling costs tend to increase exponentially with depth, and
it is a good policy for drilling engineers to rely on past data to
estimate drilling time and cost for future operations.
• When enough data are available for a certain region, it is
possible to assume a relationship between cost, C dc, and
depth, s, as proposed in Bourgoyne (1986).
111
5.1. Drilling Cost Prediction (Continued)
•…………………………………..(I.3)

where:
Cdc = Cost
s = depth, ft
adc and bdc is a constant depends on the well location.
112
• When a number of similar wells have been drilled in a region
(e.g., in a development campaign in which all wells have
approximately the same depth and casing program).
• Prediction of future wells is simpler, then the drilling
engineer can use the curve to predict future well costs. The
learning curve can be mathematically represented by:
113
•……………………………………………(I.4)

where:
Clc = Leaning curve cost of the well or cost per foot
nw = well number (ordered by the first well drilled to
the last)
alc and blc = constant depends on the well location.
114
5.2. Specific Energy
• The concept of mechanical Specific energy (MSE) was first
introduced by Teale (1964), it is based on the principles
which quantify the amounts of energy required to destroy a
given volume of rock.
• If we consider a drillstring, with rotary speed N, work done
per minute of rotation of the drillstring can be expressed as
follows:
115
5.2. Specific Energy (Continued)
•…………………………….(I.5)

where:
ROP = Penetration rate, in/min
T = Torque, lb-in
F = Thurst force, lb
N = Rotary speed, rev/minute.
116
•The
volume of drilled cuttings excavated in a minute can
similarly be expressed as:
……………………...…………………….(I.6)
117
•Teale
(1964) then defined the drilling specific energy with
following expression:
……………………………….. (I.7)
118
where:
ROP = Penetration rate, in/min
T = Torque, lb-in
N = Rotary speed, rev/minute
A = Bit area, in2
119
• Equation (I.7) is composed of two parts; The Thrust force or
weight on bit component and the Rotary speed component.
• The concept of specific energy, introduced efficiency to the
calculation, which led to the subsequent definition of the
minimum specific energy, at which energy is reduced to
compressive strength of the rock being drilled which will be
equivalent to efficiency of 1.
120
• Equation (I.7) is composed of two parts; The Thrust force or
weight on bit component and the Rotary speed component.
• The concept of specific energy, introduced efficiency to the
calculation, which led to the subsequent definition of the
minimum specific energy, at which energy is reduced to
compressive strength of the rock being drilled which will be
equivalent to efficiency of 1.
121
•……………………(I.8)

where:
UCS = Rock unconfined compressive strength, Psi
Es min = Spesific energy minimum, Psi.

Maximum efficiency occurs when the ratio of minimum
specific energy to rock UCS approaches to 1.
122
•Curry
et al (2005) defined a technical limit specific energy
equation for performance drilling as shown below:
………………….…………………..(I.9)
123
where:
ROP = Rate of penetration, ft/hr
W = Power input by bit into rock destruction process, HP
Dia = Bit diameter, inch
MSEmin = Mechanical specific energy minimum, kilopounds
per square inch
124
•The
definition of MSE is defined as:
…………………(III.10)
where:
ROP = Rate of penetration, ft/hr
W = Power input by bit into rock destruction process, HP
Dia = Bit diameter, inch
T = Torque, lb-in
125
N = Rotary speed, rev/minute
A = Bit area, in2
EF = Drilling efficiency
MSE = Mechanical specific energy, psi.
126
6. Standard Used on Drilling Operation
Activity
1. API Spec 9A
Specifies the minimum requirements and terms of acceptance
for the manufacture and testing of steel wire ropes not
exceeding rope grade 2160 for the petroleum and natural gas
industries.
2. API RP 7L
Provides owners and users of drilling equipment with
guidelines for inspection, maintenance, repair, and
remanufacture procedures that may be utilized to maintain
serviceability of the drilling equipment. 127
Activity (Continued)
3. API Spec 7K
Provides general principles and specifies requirements for
design, manufacture, and testing of new drilling and well
servicing equipment and of replacement primary load carrying
components manufactured subsequent to the publication of this
specification.
4. API Spec 8C
Provides specifies requirements for design, manufacture and
testing of hoisting equipment used in drilling and production
activities. 128
5. API RP 53
Provides recommended practice for installation and testing the
BOP equipment.
6. API Spec 16D
Provides specifies requirements for design of BOP system
used in drilling operation.
129
7. API Spec 4F
Provides specifies requirements for design, manufacture and
use of derrick, portable masts, crown block assemblies and
substructure for drilling and well services.
8. API Spec 5D
Provides specifies requirements for testing and inspection of
drill pipe.
130
CHAPTER II
FORMATION PRESSURE, FRACTURE GRADIENT
AND ABNORMAL PRESSURE

131
Outline
1. Formation Pressure
2. Overburden Pressure
3. Abnormal Pressure
4. Methods for Estimating Pore Pressure
5. Formation Fracture Ressistance
6. Methods for Estimating Fracture Pressure
7. Standard Used on Estimating Pore and Fracture Pressure.
132
• The pressure in the formations to be drilled is often expressed
in terms of a pressure gradient.
• This gradient is derived from a line passing through a
particular formation pore pressure and a datum point at
surface and is known as the pore pressure gradient.
• The reasons for this will become apparent subsequently.
133
1. Formation Pressure (Continued)
• The datum which is generally used during drilling operations
is the drillfloor elevation but a more general datum level,
used almost universally, is Mean Sea Level, MSL.
• When the pore throats through the sediment are
interconnecting, the pressure of the fluid at any depth in the
sediment will be same as that which would be found in a
simple coloumn of fluid.
134
• Therefore the pore pressure gradient is a straight line as
shown in Figure II.1.
• The gradient of the line is a representation of the density of
the fluid. Hence the density of the fluid in the pore space is
often expressed in units of psi/ft.
135
Figure II.1. P-Z Diagram representing pore pressures (Heriott-Watt

University. 2005) 136
• This is a very convenient unit of representation since the pore
pressure for any given formation can easily be deduced from
the pore pressure gradient if the vertical depth of the
formation is known.
• Representing the pore pressures in the formations in terms of
pore pressure gradients is also convenient when computing
the density of the drilling fluid that will be required to drill
through the formations in question.
137
• If the density of the drilling fluid in the wellbore is also
expressed in units of psi/ft then the pressure at all points in
the wellbore can be compared with the pore pressures to
ensure that the pressure in the wellbore exceeds the pore
pressure.
• The differential between the mud pressure and the pore
pressure at any given depth is known as the overbalance
pressure at that depth (Figure II.2).
138
• If the mud pressure is less than the pore pressure then the
differential is known as the underbalance pressure.
• It will be seen below that the fracture pressure gradient of the
formations is also expressed in units of psi/ft.
139
Figure II.2. Mud density compared to pore pressure gradient

(Heriott-Watt University. 2005). 140
• Most of the fluids found in the pore space of sedimentary
formations contain a proportion of salt and are known as
brines.
• The dissolved salt content may vary from 0 to over 200,000
ppm.
• Correspondingly, the pore pressure gradient ranges from
0.433 psi/ft (pure water) to about 0.50 psi/ft.
141
• In most geographical areas the pore pressure gradient is
approximately 0.465 psi/ft (assumes 80,000 ppm salt content)
and this pressure gradient has been defined as the normal
pressure gradient.
• Any formation pressure above or below the points defined by
this gradient are called abnormal pressures (Figure II.3).
142
• The mechanisms by which these abnormal pressures can be
generated will be discussed below.
• When the pore fluids are normally pressured the formation
pore pressure is also said to be hydrostatic.
143
(Continued)
Figure II.3. Abnormal formation

pressures plotted against depth for
100 US wells (Heriott-Watt
University. 2005). 144
• The vertical pressure at any point in the earth is known as the
overburden pressure or geostatic pressure.
• The overburden gradient is derived from a cross plot of
overburden pressure versus depth (Figure II.4).
145
• The overburden pressure at any point is a function of the
mass of rock and fluid above the point of interest.
• In order to calculate the overburden pressure at any point, the
average density of the material (rock and fluids) above the
point of interest must be determined.
146
2. Overburden Pressure (Continued)
rb= rf x f + rm (1-f )………………………………(II.1)

or
rb= rm - (rm - rf )
f.........................................
..........(II.2)
147
where,
rb= bulk density of porous sediment

rm = density of rock matrix
rf = density of fluid in pore space
f = porosity.
148
Figure II.4. Pore Pressure, Fracture Pressure and Overburden

Pressures and Gradients for a Particular Formation (Heriott-
Watt University. 2005). 149
3. Abnormal Pressure
• Pore pressures which are found to lie above or below the
normal pore pressure gradient line are called abnormal pore
pressures (Figure II.5 and II.6).
• These formation pressures may be either Subnormal (i.e. less
than 0.465 psi/ft) or Overpressured (i.e. greater than 0.465
psi/ft).
150
3. Abnormal Pressure (Continued)
• The mechanisms which generate these abnormal pore
pressures can be quite complex and vary from region to
region.
• However, the most common mechanism for generating
overpressures is called Undercompaction and can be best
described by the undercompaction model.
151
Figure II.5. Overpressured Formation (Heriott-Watt University. 2005). 152

Figure II.6. Underpressured formation (Heriott-Watt University. 2005). 153

• Abnormal pressure are found in at least a portion of most of
the sedimentary basins in the world.
• While the origin of abnormal pressure is not understood
completely.
• Several mechanism that tend to cause abnormal pressure
have been identified in sedimentary basins. These
mechanisms can classified generally as:
154
1. Compaction effects
2. Diagenetic effects
3. Diffrential density effects
4. Fluid migration effects.
155
3.1. Compaction Effects
• Pore water expands with increasing burial Depth and
increased temperature, while the pore space is reduced by
increasing geostatic load.
• Thus, normal presure can be maintained only if a path of
sufficient permeability exists to allow formation water to
escape readily.
156
3.1. Compaction Effects (Continued)
• However, if the water flow path is blocked or severely
restricted, the increasing overburden stress will cause
pressurization of the pore water above hydrostatic pressure.
• The pore volume also will remain greater than normal for the
given burial depth.
• The natural loss of permeability through compaction of fine-
grained sediments, such as shale or evaporites, may create a
seal that would permit abnormal pressure to develop.
157
3.2. Diagenetic Effects
• Diagenesis is a term that refers to the chemical alteration of
rock minerals by geological processes.
• Shales and carbonates are thought to undergo changes in
crystalline structure, which contributes to the cause of
abnormal pressure.
• An often cited example is the possible conversion of
montmorillonite clays to illites, chlorites, and kaolinite clays
during compaction in the presence of potassium ions.
158
3.2. Diagenetic Effects (Continued)
• Water is present in clay deposits both as free pore water and
as water of hydration, which is held more tightly within the
shale outerlayer structure (see Fig. II.7).
• Pore water is lost first during compaction of montmorillonite
clays; water bonded within the shale interlayer structure
tends to be retained longer.
• After reaching a burial depth at which a temperature of 200°F
to 300°F is present, dehydrated montmorillonite releases the
last water interlayers and becomes illite.
159
• The water of hydration in the last interlayers has considerably
greater density than free water, and, thus, undergoes a
volume increase as it desorbs and becomes free water.
• When the permeability of the overlying sediments is
sufficiently low, release of the last water interlayer can result
in development of abnormal pressure.
160
• The last interlayer water to be released would be relatively
free of dissolved salts.
• This is thought to explain the fresh water that sometimes is
found at depth in abnormally pressured formations.
161
Figure II.7. Clay diagenesis of

montmorillonite to illite
(Bourgoyne et al. 1986).
162
3.3. Diffrential Density Effects
• When the pore fluid present in any nonhorizontal structure
has a density significantly less than the normal pore fluid
density for the area, abnormal pressures can be encountered
in the updip portion of the structure.
• This situation is encountered frequently when a gas reservoir
with a significant dip is drilled.
163
3.3. Diffrential Density Effects (Continued)
• Because of a failure to recognize this potential hazard,
blowouts have occurred in familiar gas sands previously
penetrated by other wells.
164
3.4. Fluid Migration Effects
• The upward flow of fluids from a deep reservoir to a more
shallow formation can result in the shallow formation
becoming abnormally pressured.
• When this occurs, the shallow formation is said to be
charged.
• As shown in Fig. II.8, the flow path for this type of fluid
migration can be natural or manmade.
165
3.4. Fluid Migration Effects (Continued)
• Even if the upward movement of fluid is stopped,
considerable time may be required for the pressures in the
charged zone to bleed off and return to normal.
• Many severe blowouts have occurred when a shallow
charged formation was encountered unexpectedly.
• This situation is particularly common above old fields.
166
3.4. Fluid Migration Effects (Continued)
Figure II.8. Situations where upward fluid migration can lead to abnormally
pressured shallow formations. (Bourgoyne et al. 1986). 167
4. Methods to Estimating Pore Pressure
A. Before Drilling
1. Correlation of available data from nearby wells
2. Seismic data
B. While Drilling
1. Analysis of drilling performance data
2. Analysis of mud logging data
3. Analysis of cation exchange capacity
4. Mud gas analysis
5. Drilling fluid analysis.
168
(Continued)
A. Before Drilling
• When planning development wells, emphasis is placed on
data from previous drilling experiences in the area. For
wildcat wells, only seismic data may be available.
169
(Continued)
A. Before Drilling
• To estimate formation pore pressure from seismic data, the
average acoustic velocity as a function of depth must be
determined.
170
(Continued)
A. Before Drilling
• A geophysicist who specializes in computer-assisted analysis

of seismic data usually performs this for the drilling engineer.
For convenience, the reciprocal of velocity, or interval transit
time, generally is displayed.
171
4.1. Analysis Drilling Performance Data
Changes in bit behavior can be detected through measurements
made at the surface. Commonly, measurements include:
1. Penetration rate
2. Hook load
3. Rotary speed
4. Torque.
172
(Continued)
• The d-exponent equation can be used to detect the transition
from normal to abnormal pressure if the drilling fluid density
is held constant.
• The technique involves plotting values of d obtained in a
given type of low permeability formation as a function of
depth.
173
(Continued)
• Shale is nearly always the formation type selected. Drilling
data obtained in other formation types simply are omitted
from the calculation.
• In normally pressured formation, the d-exponent tends to
increase with depth.
• After abnormally pressured formations are encountered, a
departure from the normal pressure trend occurs in which the
dexponent increases less rapidly with depth.
174
(Continued)
•…………………(II.3)

where:
R = Penetration rate, ft/hr
N = Rotary speed, rpm
W = Weight on bit, k-lbf
db = Bit diameter, inch.
175
4.1. Analysis Drilling
Performance Data (Continued)
Figure II.9. Relationships between

d-exponent and overbalance
pressure (Bourgoyne et al. 1986).
176
4.2. Analysis of Mud Logging Data
• The lithology is determined by collecting fresh rock

fragments from the shale shaker at regular depth intervals.
• The fragments then are washed and studied under a
microscope to determine the type of minerals present.
177
4.2. Analysis of Mud Logging Data (Continued)
• Variations in size, shape, and volume of shale fragments in

the drilling fluid also can provide indications of abnormal
formation pressures.
• As formation pressure in the transition zone increases while
drilling with a constant drilling fluid density, the pressure
overbalance across the hole bottom decreases continually.
• At a reduced overbalance, the shale cuttings sometimes
become longer, thinner, more angular, and more numerous.
178
• If the formation pressure becomes greater than the drilling

fluid pressure while low permeability shale is drilled, large
shale fragments begin to spall off the sides of the borehole.
• Fragments greater than an inch in length often can be
observed at the surface.
179
• Spaling shale appears, longer, thinner, and more splintery

than sloughing shale, which results from a chemical
incompatibility between the borehole wall and the drilling
fluid.
• Spalling shale also has a concoidal fracture pattern that is
apparent under a microscope.
180
4.3. Analysis Cation Exchange Capacity
• The cation exchange capacity of the shale cuttings can be

determined with the titration procedure for clay/water drilling
fluids.
• Also, more detailed instructions are given in API RP13B,
which is included in the Drilling Fluids Laboratory Manual.
• The cation exchange capacity of the shale cuttings reported in
milliliters of 0.01 N methylene blue required to titrate 100 g
of shale sample is called the shale factor.
181
(Continued)
• In normally pressured sediments, the diagenesis of
montmorillonite to illite causes a gradual decline in
montmorillonite content with depth.
• In the transition zone, the montmorillonite content as
measured by the shale factor usually is observed to decrease
at a much faster rate.
182
(Continued)
• One hypothesis to explain this relationship is that the release
of the more tightly held interlayer water to pore water in the
conversion of montmorillonite to iilite is a primary cause of
the abnormally high pore pressure.
183
4.4. Mud Gas Analysis
• Formation gases enter the drilling fluid from the pore fluids
of the rock destroyed by the bit, and the seepage of fluids
from exposed formations into the borehole.
• The seepage of fluids into the borehole is an indication that
the formation pressure has increased to the point where it
exceeds the pressure caused by the drilling fluid during at
least a portion of the drilling operations.
184
4.4. Mud Gas Analysis (Continued)
• This can be detected by characteristic zones of high gas

concentration being circulated to the surface that correspond
to periods where drilling fluid circulation was stopped and
upward vertical pipe movements occurred.
• The pressure caused by the drilling fluid is minimal during
such periods and the static drilling fluid allows any seepage
to be concentrated in a relatively small volume of drilling
fluid.
185
4.4. Drilling Fluid Analysis
• This can be detected by characteristic zones of high gas

concentration being circulated to the surface that correspond
to periods where drilling fluid circulation was stopped and
upward vertical pipe movements occurred.
• The pressure caused by the drilling fluid is minimal during
such periods and the static drilling fluid allows any seepage
to be concentrated in a relatively small volume of drilling
fluid.
186
(Continued)
Verification is required to ensure the formation pressure value

is more valid. This verification is done with log data plotted
against the depth by measuring :
A. Interval Transit Time

B. Conductivity.
187
(Continued)
• When the shale interval transit time falls significantly above

the normal pressure trend line near the formation of interest,
abnormal formation pressure is indicated.
188
(Continued)
• Hottman and Johnson presented one of the first empirical

relationships between measured formation pressures in
permeable sandstones and interval transit time in the adjacent
shales.
189
4. Methods to Estimating Pore
Pressure (Continued)
Figure II.10. Hottman and Johnson

relationship between formation
pore pressure and shale interval
transit time (Hottman et al. 1965).
190
(Continued)
B. Conductivity
• Well logging devices that measure formation conductivity or
resistivity (the reciprocal of conductivity) are used on almost
every well drilled.
• Since the data are almost always readily available,
conductivity is the most common porosity-dependent
parameter used in the estimation of formation pore pressure
from well logs.
191
(Continued)
B. Conductivity
• The term formation factor, FR, generally is used to refer to the
ratio of the resistivity of the water-saturated formation, R o, to
the resistivity of the water, Rw. The formation factor also can
be expressed in terms of a conductivity ratio:
192
(Continued)
•B. Conductivity
…………………………………..(II.4)
……………………………….….. (II.5)
193
(Continued)
B. Conductivity
where:
• ϕ = Porosity (Fraction)
• FR = Formation factor (fraksi)
• Ro = Resistivity water-saturated-formation (Ωm2 /m)
• Rw = Water resistivity (Ωm2 /m)
194
(Continued)
B. Conductivity
where:
• Cw = Water conductivity (m/Ωm2)
• Co = Water-saturated-formation conductivity (m/Ωm2)
• m = Rock cementation factor (dimensionless).
195
5. Formation Fracture Resistance
• When abnormal formation pressure is encountered, the

density of the drilling fluid must be increased to maintain the
wellbore pressure above the formation pore pressure to
prevent the flow of fluids from permeable formations into the
well.
196
5. Formation Fracture Resistance (Continued)
• However, since the wellbore pressure must be maintained

below the pressure that will cause fracture in the more
shallow, relatively weak, exposed formations just below the
casing seat, there is a maximum drilling fluid density that can
be tolerated.
• This means that there is a maximum depth into the
abnormally pressured zone to which the well can be drilled
safely without cementing another casing string in the well.
197
• Estimates of formation fracture pressure made before setting
casing in the well are based on empirical correlations.
198
(Continued)
• Since formation fracture pressure is affected greatly by the
formation pore pressure, one of the previously described pore
pressure prediction methods must be applied before use of a
fracture pressure correlation.
• The more commonly used fracture pressure equations and
correlations include:
199
(Continued)
1.Hubbert and Willis equation
2.Mathews and Kelly correlation
3.Pennebaker correlation
4.Eaton correlation
5.Christman equation
6.MacPherson and Berry correlation.
200
6.1. Hubbert & Willis Equation
• Hubbert and Willis introduced many fundamental principals
that are still used widely today.
• The minimum wellbore pressure required to extend an
existing fracture was given as the pressure needed to
overcome the minimum principal stress:
201
6.1. Hubbert & Willis Equation (Continued)
Pff = (σob + 2Pf)/3………………………..(II.6)
where:
σob = Vertical overburden stress, psig
Pf = Formation pore pressure, psig
Pff = Fracture pressure, psig.

202
6.2. Matthews and Kelly Equation
• Drilling experience showed that formation fracture gradients
increased with depth, even in normally pressured formations,
and that equation II.6 was generally not valid for deeper
formations.
• Matthews and Kelly replaced the assumption that the
minimum matrix stres was one-third the overburden stress
by:
203
6.2. Matthews and Kelly Equation (Continue)
•
...........................................................(II.7)
where:
= Matrix stress coefficient

= Vertical stress, psig.
204
• The depth Di at which a normally pressured formation has
the vertical matrix strength present in the abnormally
pressured formation of interest is:
……..............................(II.8)
205
•
……..............................(II.8)
where:
• σob= Vertical overburden stress, psig
• Pf = Formation pore pressure, psig
• = Vertical stress, psig
• D = Depth, ft. 206

6.2. Matthews and Kelly
Equation (Continue)
Figure II.11. Mathews and Kelly

matrix-stress coefficient for
normally pressured formations
(Mathews et al. 1967).
207
6.3. Pennebacker Correlation
•• The Pennebaker correlation is similar to the Matthews and
Kelly correlation in that Eq. II.7 is used to compute the
minimum matrix stress.
• Pennebaker called the coefficient the effective stress ratio
and correlated this ratio with depth, regardless of pore
pressure gradient.
208
6.3. Pennebacker Correlation (Continued)
• Thus, the actual depth of the formation always is used in the
Pennebaker correlation, which is shown in Fig. II.12. Field
data for this correlation come primarily from the south Texas
gulf coast area.
• Pennebaker did not assume a constant value for vertical
overburden stress σob, and developed the correlation shown in
Fig. II.13 for determining this parameter.
209
6.3. Pennebacker Correlation (Continued)
• The effect of geologic age on overburden stress is taken into

account by a family of curves for various depths at which the
seismic-derived interval transit time is 100 μs/ft.
210
6.3. Pennebacker
Correlation (Continued)
Figure II.12. Pennebacker

correlation for effective stress
ratio (Pennebacker. 1967).
211
6.3. Pennebacker
Correlation (Continued)
Figure II.13. Pennebacker

correlation for vertical overburden
stres (Pennebacker. 1967).
212
6.3. Eaton Correlation
•• The Eaton correlation assumes that the relationship between
horizontal and vertical matrix stress is described accurately by:
..........................................................(IV.9)
where:
= = = Horizontal stress
= Vertical stress
= Poisson ratio.
213
6.3. Eaton Correlation
(Continued)
Figure II.14. Eaton

correlation for poisson’s ratio
(Eaton. 1969).
214
6.4. Christman Correlation
• Christman, working in the Santa Barbara channel off the California
coast, found that stress ratio Fσ could be correlated to the bulk
density of the sediments.
• The Christman correlation is shown in Fig. II.14. The bulk density
of the sediments tends to increase with increasing depth, overburden
stress, and geologic age.
• All of these variables appear to affect the formation fracture
gradient.
215
6.4. Christman Correlation
(Continued)
Figure II.15. Christman

correlation for effective stress
ratio (Christman. 1973).
216
6.5. MacPherson and Berry Correlation
• With a novel approach. MacPherson and Berry developed a
correlation between elastic modulus K b, for a compressional wave
and formation fracture pressure.
• Using measurements of interval transit time by means of a sonic log
and bulk density by means of a density log.
• The elastic modulus Kb, is computed using the following equation:
217
6.5. MacPherson and Berry Correlation
(Continued)
•................................(IV.10)

where:
Kb = Elastic modulus
= Rock density
t = Transit time.
218
1. This verification aims to ensure that the fracture pressure value
becomes more valid.
2. In this drilling operation, validation is carried out for every casing
setting depth, by using Leakoff test
3. Leak off test is carried out with the aim that the casing, cement
and formation under the casing seat to determine the ability to
hold pressure for the next section.
219
6. Standard Used on Estimating Pore and Fracture
Pressure
1. API RP13 B
To provide to provide standard procedures for the testing of drilling
fluids and Related to the role of drilling mud used in prediction of
pore pressure and leakoff test to predict and verify the value of
fracture pressure.
2. API SPEC 12J
Covers minimum requirements for the design, fabrication and shop
testing of oilfield type mud gas separators.
220
3. Norsok D-010
Covers about drilling operation, and covers about operational
pumping drilling fluid in prediction of formation pressure and
fracture pressure.
4. API 10A and 10B
Covers about cement material, design and testing. To design the
cement does not exceed the formation fracture pressure.
221
5. API SPEC 5CT
Covers spesification of casing and tubing, and related of prediction of fracture
pressure.
222
CHAPTER III
DRILLING FLUIDS, PRESSURE LOSSES AND
SURGE, SWAB & SLIP ANALYSIS

223
Outline
1. Drilling Fluid
2. Swelling Problem
3. Pressure Losses
4. Cutting Transport
5. Dynamic Surge and Swab Pressures
6. Standard Used on Drilling fluids, pressure losses and surge,
swab & slip analysis.
224
1. Drilling fluids
• Drilling fluids is one of the most important elements of any
drilling operation.
• The mud has a number of functions which must all be
optimised to ensure safety and minimum hole problems.
• Failure of the mud to meet its design functions can prove
extremely costly in terms of materials and time, and can also
jeopardise the successful completion of the well and may
even result in major problems such as stuck pipe, kicks or
blowouts.
225
1. Drilling fluids (Continued)
• There are basically two types of drilling fluid: water-based
and oil-based, depending on whether the continuous phase is
water or oil.
• Then there are a multitude of additives which are added to
either change the mud density or change its chemical
properties.
226
Functions of drilling fluid:
2. Physicochemical functions
3. Cooling and lubricating the rotating bit and drillstring
4. Fluid loss control
5. Control subsurface pressure.
227
Functions of drilling fluid :
6. Help support the drillstring and casing weight
7. Ensure maximum logging information
8. Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the rotating bit.
228
Classifications for drilling fluids:
Continous phase classification
1. Water Based Fluids
2. Oil Based Fluids
3. Pneumatic (gas) fluids.
229
• Water-based drilling muds are the most commonly used fluids,
while oil-based muds are more expensive and require more
environmental considerations.
• The use of pneumatic drilling fluids (i.e., air, gas, and foam) is
limited to depleted zones or areas where the formations are low
pressured (although with underbalanced-drilling equipment,
higher pressured zones can now be drilled without the need of
pneumatic drilling fluids).
230
• In water-based fluids, the solid particles are suspended in
water or brine, while in oil-based muds the particles are
suspended in oil.
• When pneumatic drilling fluids are used, the rock fragments
or drill cuttings are removed by a high velocity stream of air
or natural gas.
231
Drilling Fluid Additives:
1. Weighting agents : Barium sulphate (BaSO4)
2. Fluid Loss Control Additives : Bentonite
3. Thinners or dispersants : Quebracho
4. Loss Circulation Material : Formica
232
Drilling Fluid Additives:
5. Surfactant or surface active agents
6. Various other additives : foaming agents.
233
Testing of drilling fluids:
• During the drilling process, the physical and rheological
properties of a drilling fluid have to be controlled accurately
to ensure the fluid’s appropriate performance.
• These properties are regularly tested and recorded on the
drilling-mud report, which is presented by the API (API
Spec. 13B-1 2009).
• The drilling fluid technicians carry out the field tests at the
wellsite where the mud properties are routinely monitored.
234
1. Testing for density
2. Testing for flow properties : Viscosity, apparent viscosity,
gel strength
3. Lubricity testing
4. Filtration properties.
235
5. Testing for chemical properties : Alkalinity and lime
content, sand content analysis, Hydrogen ion concentration,
chlorine concentration, calcium concentration, cation exchange
capacity.
236
2. Swelling Problem
• It is a phenomenon where the permeability of the formation
is reduced due to the alteration of the existing clay material.
• Swelling occurs due to ion exchange between water and clay
which causes development of the surface structure of the clay
or due to changes in salinity.
237
2. Swelling Problem (Continued)
• The most common types of swelling clays in reservoirs are
smectites and mixed-layer illites.
• Swelling problems can cause drilling problems such as stuck
pipes and poor hole quality.
238
3. Pressure Losses
Figure III.1 gives a schematic of the circulating system. We
shall divide the circulating system into four sections:
1. Surface connection
2. Pipes including drillpipe, heavy walled drillpipe and drill
colars
3. Anullar areas around drillpipes, drillcollar, etc
4. Drillbit.
239
3. Pressure Losses
(Continued)
Figure III.1. Schematic of the

circulating system (Rabia. 2012).
240
3. Pressure Losses
1. Surface Connection Losses
• Pressure losses in surface connections (P1) are those taking
place in standpipe, rotary hose, swivel and kelly.
• The task of estimating surface pressure losses is complicated
by the fact that such losses are dependent on the dimensions
and geometries of surface connections.
241
3. Pressure Losses (Continued)
1. Surface Connection Losses
• These dimensions can vary with time, owing to continuous
wear of surfaces by the drilling fluids.
• The following general equation may be used to evaluate
pressure losses in surface connections:
242
1. Surface Connection Losses (Continued)
P1 = E x r0.8 x Q1.8 x PV0.2 psi………………(V.7)
where,
r = mud weight (lbm/gal)
Q = volume rate (gpm)
E = a constant depending on type of surface equipment used
PV = plastic viscosity (cP).
243
2. Pipe and Anullar Pressure Losses
Pipe losses take place inside the drillpipe and drill collars and
are designated in Figure III.1 as P2 and P3, respectively.
Annular losses take place around the drill collar and drillpipe
and are designated as P4 and P5 in Figure III.1.
244
2. Pipe and Anullar Pressure Losses (Continued)
The magnitudes of P2, P3, P4 and P5 depend on:
1. Dimensions of drillpipe (or drill collars)
2. Mud rheological properties,
3. Type of Flow.
245
3. Pressure Loss Across Bit
• The object of any hydraulics programme is to optimise
pressure drop across the bit such that maximum cleaning of
bottom hole is achieved.
• For a given length of drill string (drillpipe and drill collars)
and given mud properties, pressure losses P1, P2, P3, P4 and
P5 will remain constant.
246
3. Pressure Loss Across Bit (Continued)
• However, the pressure loss across the bit is greatly influenced
by the sizes of nozzles used, and the later determine the
amount of hydraulic horsepower available at the bit.
• The smaller the nozzle the greater the pressure drop and the
greater the nozzle velocity.
247
• Of the many functions that are performed by the drilling
fluid, the most important is to transport cuttings from the bit
up the annulus to the surface.
• If the cuttings cannot be removed from the wellbore, drilling
cannot proceed for long. In rotary drilling operations, both
the fluid and the rock fragments are moving.
248
4. Cutting Transport (Continued)
• The situation is complicated further by the fact that the fluid
velocity varies from zero at the wall to a maximum at the
center of annulus, In addition, the rotation of the drillpipe
imparts centrifugal force on the rock fragments, which affects
their relative location in the annulus.
249
Factors affecting cutting transport:
1. Flowrate
2. Hole inclination
3. Density
4. Pipe rotation
5. Rheology.
250
Factors affecting cutting transport:
6. Eccentricity
7. Cutting size
8. Solids volumetric concentration
9. Mud type
10. Annular Clearance.
251
• When a tubular (such as drillstring or casing) is moved in a
hole filled with a fluid, transient pressure fluctuation can
occur, causing the fluid pressure at a given depth to oscillate
above and below the hydrostatic pressure.
• Transients occur while either pulling out of the hole or
tripping in the hole.
252
(Continued)
• However, due to the nature of transient pressure, both surges
and swabs could occur in either case.
• For instance, while pulling out, the string is first accelerated
to the maximum trip speed, held at that speed for some time,
and finally decelerated to rest for each stand pulled.
253
(Continued)
Figure III.2. Typical velocity profile while tripping in the

hole (Mitchell et al. 2011) 254
6. Standard Used on Drilling fluids, pressure losses and surge,
swab & slip analysis.
1. API RP 13B-1: “Field testing of drilling fluids – Part 1:

Water-based fluid”
• To provide standard procedure for testing water based
mud.
2. API RP 13B-2: “Field testing of drilling fluids – Part 2: Oil-
based fluid”
• To provide standard procedure for testing oil based mud.
255
CHAPTER IV
VERTICAL WELL DRILLSTRING DESIGN
AND DRILLSTRING INSPECTION

256
Outline
1. Drill Collar
2. Selection of Drill Collar Size and Length
3. Drillpipe
4. Drillpipe Stress and fatigue
5. Drillpipe Inspection
6. Tool Joints
257
Outline (Continued)
7. Heavy Weight Drillpipe

8. Other Drillstring Components
9. Vertical Well Drillstring Design
10. Directional and Horizontal Well Drillstring Design
258
Basic Component of a
Drillstring
Figure IV.1. Basic components of a

drillstring (API Spec 7. 2001).
259
1. Drill Collar
• The drill collars are the major part of the BHA.
• The BHA, if properly designed, serves several purposes,
including loading of the drill bit with the WOB, as previously
mentioned.
• The mechanical and geometric properties of the BHA affect
bit performance (i.e., drilling rate and bit wear), hole
problems (doglegs, key seats, differential pressure sticking),
drillstring vibrations, and drillpipe service life.
260
1. Drill Collar (Continued)
• Drill collars are manufactured in various sizes and shapes.

• Conventional drill collars have a round cross section;
however, square and spiral drill collars are also used in the
drilling industry.
• Drill collars with a square cross-sectional outside profile are
used to increase the stiffness of a BHA, whereas the spiral
type is recommended for drilling in areas where differential
pressure sticking is a problem.
261
Many factors affect selection of the drill-collar shape and unit
weight. The most important factors are:
1.Bit size
2.OD of the casing that is expected to be run in the hole
3.Formation dip angle and heterogeneity
4.Hydraulic program (i.e., drilling-fluid type, properties, flow
rate, and nozzle size)
262
(Continued)
5. Maximum acceptable dogleg (hole curvature)

6. Required WOB
7. Possibility of fishing operations (retrieving the string if
some of the elements fail and a portion of the BHA is lost in
the hole).
263
(Continued)
Like drillpipe, collars are subjected to stresses due to:

1.Buckling and bending forces
2.Tension
3.Vibrations
4.Alternate compression and tension.
264
3. Drillpipe
• The major portion of a drillstring is composed of drillpipe.
• Drillpipe in common use is made out of steel [steel drillpipe
(SDP)].
• In some applications (e.g., drilling long extended-reach
wells), it may be better to use aluminum drillpipe (ADP) or
titanium drillpipe (TDP).
265
3. Drillpipe (Continued)
• To evaluate the usefulness of ADP and TDP compared with
SDP, one would need to consider the wellbore path
configuration, the downhole temperatures, the working
environment (presence of H2S and CO2), and the drag and
torque issues.
266
Drillpipe can be classified according to:
1. Size (nominal OD)

2. Wall thickness (or nominal unit weight)
3. Steel grade
4. Length ranges.
267
3. Drillpipe
(Continued)
Table IV.1. New

drillpipe dimensional
data (API RP 7G.
1998).
268
The steel grades used and the corresponding minimum tensile
yield strength for each are given in Table VI.2. Usually,
drillpipe is available in three length ranges
1. Range 1: 16–25 ft
2. Range 2: 27–30 ft
3. Range 3: 38–45 ft
In regular rotary drilling operations, the drillpipe most
commonly used is Range 2.
269
Table IV.2. Minimum tensile yield strength for new

drillpipe (API RP 7G. 1998).
270
4. Drillpipe Stress and Failure
• It is not uncommon for the drillpipe to undergo tensile failure
(twistoff) whilst drilling.
• When this happens, drilling has to stop and the drillstring
must be pulled from the borehole.
271
4. Drillpipe Stress and Failure (Continued)
• The failure of a drillstring can be due to excessively high
stresses and/or corrosion.
• Drillpipe is exposed to the following stresses:
272
Tension
• The weight of the suspended drillstring exposes each joint of
drillpipe to several thousand pounds of tensile load.
• Extra tension may be exerted due to overpull (drag caused by
difficult hole conditions e.g. dog legs) when pulling out of
hole.
273
Torque
• During drilling, rotation is transmitted down the string.
• Again, poor hole conditions can increase the amount of
torque or twisting force on each joint.
274
Cyclic Stress Fatigue
• In deviated holes, the wall of the pipe is exposed to
compressive and tensile forces at points of bending in the
hole.
• As the string is rotated each joint sustains a cycle of
compressive and tensile forces. This can result in fatigue in
the wall of the pipe.
275
• Stresses are also induced by vibration, abrasive friction and
bouncing the bit off bottom.
• Corrosion of a drillstring in a water based mud is primarily
due to dissolved gases, dissolved salts and acids in the
wellbore, such as:
276
1. Oxygen
2. Carbondioxide
3. Dissolved salts
4. Hydrogen sulphide
5. Hydrogen embrittlement
6. Organic acids
277
5. Drillpipe Inspection
• During the working life of the drillpipe it will therefore be
necessary to determine the degree of damage or wear that the
pipe has already been subjected to and therefore its capacity
to withstand the loads to which it will be exposed in the
future.
278
5. Drillpipe Inspection (Continued)
• Various non-destructive tests are periodically applied to used
drillpipe, to assess the wear and therefore strength of the
pipe, and to inspect for any defects, e.g. cracks.
• The strength of the pipe is gauged on the basis of the
remaining wall thickness, or if worn eccentrically, the
average minimum wall thickness of the pipe.
• The methods used to inspect drillpipe are summarised in
Table IV.3.
279
5. Drillpipe Inspectio
(Continued)
Table IV.3. Summary of

inspection techniques
(Heriot-Watt University.
2005).
280
6. Tool Joints
• Tool joints are located at each end of a length of drillpipe and
provide the screw thread for connecting the joints of pipe
together.
• The strength of a tool joint depends on the cross sectional
area of the box and pin.
281
6. Tool Joints (Continued)
• With continual use the threads of the pin and box become
worn, and there is a decrease in the tensile strength.
• The size of the tooljoint depends on the size of the drillpipe
but various sizes of tool joint are available.
282
7. Heavy Weight Drillpipe
• Heavy wall drillpipe (or heavy weight drillpipe) has a
greater wall thickness than ordinary drillpipe
• Often used at the base of the drillpipe where stress
concentration is greatest. The stress concentration is due to:
283
7. Heavy Weight Drillpipe (Continue)
1. The difference in cross section and therefore stiffness
between the drillpipe and drillcollars.
2. The rotation and cutting action of the bit can frequently
result in a vertical bouncing effect.
284
7. Heavy Weight Drillpipe (Continue)
HWDP is used to absorb the stresses being transferred from
the stiff drill collars to the relatively flexible drillpipe. The
major benefits of HWDP are:
1. Increased wall thickness

2. Longer tool joints
3. Uses more hard facing
4. May have a long central upset section.
285
8. Other Drillstring Components
1. Stabilisers
2. Roller reamer
3. Shock sub (vibration dampners)
4. Subs
5. Drilling jars
286
9. Vertical Well Drillstring Design
There are four basic requirements which must be met when
designing a drillstring:

1.The burst, collapse and tensile strength of the drillstring
components must not be exceeded
2.The bending stresses within the drill string must be
minimised.
287
9. Vertical Well Drillstring Design (Continued)
3. The drillcollars must be able to provide all of the weight
required for drilling.
4. The BHA must be stabilised to control the direction of the
well.
288
9.1. Design Stabilised String
• A drilling bit does not normally drill a vertical hole. This is
partly due to the forces acting on the string by sloping
laminar formations.
• When the slope (or dip) of the beds is less than 45 degrees
the bit tends to drill up-dip (perpendicular to the layers).
289
9.1. Design Stabilised String (Continued)
• If the dip is greater than 45 degrees, it tends to drill parallel to
the layers.
• In hard rock, where greater WOB is applied, the resulting
compression and bending of the drillstring may cause further
deviation.
• There are two techniques for controlling deviation:
290
1.Packed hole assembly
• This is basically a stiff assembly, consisting of reamers, drill
collars and stabilisers.
• The purpose of this design is to align the bit with the hole
already drilled and minimise the rate of change in deviation.
291
2. Pendulum assembly
• The first stabiliser of a pendulum assembly is placed some
distance behind the bit.
• The unsupported section of drill collar swing to the low side
of the hole.
• A pendulum assembly will therefore tend to decrease the
angle of deviation of the hole and tend to produce a vertical
hole.
292
9.2. Bending Moments in String Design
A useful parameter when considering bending of the drillstring
is the:

…..............................................(IV.1)
Where:
I = Moment of Inertia, in4
C = External Radius of Tube, in
293
9.3. Length of Drillcollars
The length of drillcollars, L that are required for a particular
drilling situation depends on the Weight on Bit, WOB that is
required to optimise the rate of penetration of the bit and the
bouyant weight per foot, w is the weight of the drillcollars to
be used, and can be calculated from the following:
294
9.3. Length of Drillcollars (Continued)
The length of drillcollars, L that are required for a particular
drilling
Where:
WOB = weight on bit, lbf
w = weight of drill collar, lb
L = length of drillcollar, ft
295
9.3.1. Weight on Bit
• Weight on bit is the amount of downward force exerted on
the drill bit provided by drill collars.
• The downward force of gravity on drill collar provide force
for the drill bit in order to effectively break the rock.
• Figure IV.2 and IV.3 shows force analysis on the measuring
sub under the inclined borehole conditions.
• Forces on shoulder of drill string assembly lead to different
buoyant weight per unit length of each section of drill string.
296
9.3.1. Weight on Bit (Continued)
Figure IV.2. Drill string in a

deviated borehole (Xu et al.,
2019) 297
9.3.1. Weight on Bit (Contin
Figure IV.3. Force analysis

on bottom drill string (Xu
et al., 2019)
298
Measuring tool can be simplified as a single diameter of drill
string in force analysis in order to simplify the calculation.
The axial force of drill string can be expressed as:
Fa = Fw + Fof + Ff + Fj + Fb...........................................................................................
(IV.3)
where:
Fa = axial force of drill string, kN
Fw = axial component of drill string gravity, kN
Fof = flow friction force, kN.
299
Ff = borehole friction force, kN
Fj = reacting force of jet flow, kN
Fb = WOB, kN.
Once the tool measures the axial force of bottom drill string,
WOB can be calculated using equation IV.3.
300
1. Axial component of gravity
……………………………………………………………(IV.4)
Buoyancy coefficient under drilling condition is expressed as:
……………………………………………………………(IV.5)
Where:
301
1. Axial component of gravity (Continued)
ΔL = length of drill string, m

A = cross-sectional area of drill string, cm2
γs = specific weight of drill string material, kN/m3
kf = buoyancy coefficient of drill string, dimensionless
α = deviation angle, degree.
302
Ao = outer sectional area of drill string, cm2

Ai = inner sectional area of drill string, cm 2
γo = specific weight of drilling fluid outside drill string, kN/m3 .
303
γi = specific weight of drilling fluid inside drill string, kN/m3

Go = external flowing pressure gradient of drill string, MPa/m
Gi = internal flowing pressure gradient of drill string, MPa/m.
304
2. Flow Friction Force
....................................................................................................
(IV.6)
Where:
Foi = internal flow friction force, kN
Foo = external flow friction force, kN
ΔPi = internal pressure drop of drill string, Mpa.
305
2. Flow Friction Force (Continued)
ΔPo = external pressure drop of drill string, MPa

DH = borehole diameter, mm
Do = outer diameter (OD) of drill string, mm.
306
3. Borehole Friction Force
....................................................................................................
(IV.7)
Where:
ΔL = length of drill string, m
A = cross-sectional area of drill string, cm2
γs = specific weight of drill string material, kN/m3
kf = buoyancy coefficient of drill string, dimensionless. 307
3. Borehole Friction Force (Continued)
μ = Friction coefficient, dimensionless

α = deviation angle, degree
308
4. Reacting Force of Jet Flow
..................................................................................................(IV.8)
where:
ρ = drilling fluid density, g/cm3
Q = displacement, L/s
Ap = total cross-sectional area of nozzle, cm 2
309
5. WOB Calculation Procedures
1. Divide drill string below measuring point into several units

based on weight per unit length or natural structure, and
calculate related parameters of each unit.
2. Calculate pressure drops of inner and outer drill string of natural
structural units based on circulating flow rate, and then calculate
pressure drop of bit.
3. Calculate buoyancy coefficient of each unit.
4. Calculate floating weight and borehole friction of each unit.
310
5. Calculate internal and external flow friction of each unit.

6. Calculate reacting force of jet.
7. Calculate rotor axial force and piston force of transmission shaft
if positive displacement motor is used.
311
8. Correct influencing factors of drill fluid pressure and

temperature.
9. Get real WOB according to equations IV.3 – IV.8.
312
9.4. Drillpipe Selection
• The main factors considered in the selection of drillpipe are
the collapse load, and the tensile load on the pipe.
• Burst pressures are not generally considered since these only
occur when pressuring up the string on a plugged bit nozzle
or during a DST
• Torsion need not be considered except in a highly deviated
well. Once the collapse and tension load have been
quantified, the appropriated weight and grade of drillpipe can
be selected.
313
9.5. Collapse Design
• The highest external pressure tending to collapse the string
will occur at the bottom when the string is run empty into the
hole
• The criteria to be used as a worst case for the collapse design
of drill pipe is typically a DST.
314
9.5. Collapse Design
• The maximum collapse pressure should be determined for an
evacuated string, with mud hydrostatic pressure acting on the
outside of the DP.
• Use of this criterion also accounts for incidence of a plugged
bit or failure to fill the string when a float is used during trips
into the hole.
315
9.5. Collapse Design (Continued)
• The maximum differential pressure across the drillpipe which
exists prior to the opening of the DST tool is given by:
………………………………………………………….. (IV.9)
where:
Pc = collapse pressure, psi
Y = depth to fluid inside drillpipe, ft
L = total depth of well, ft. 316
r1 = fluid density outside the drillpipe, ppg
r2 = fluid density inside the drillpipe, ppg.
317
The drillpipe is completely empty, Y = 0, r 2 = 0, Eq. (VI.9)
becomes:
..........................................................................................
(IV.10)
where:
L = total depth of well, ft
r1 = fluid density outside the drillpipe, ppg.
318
When the fluid density inside drillpipe is the same as that
outside drillpipe, i.e. r1 = r2 = r , then Eq. (IV.9) becomes:
..........................................................................................
(IV.11)
where:
Y = depth to fluid inside drillpipe, ft
r = fluid density, ppg.
319
•Design
Factor in Collapse:
…...........................(IV.12)
320
9.6. Tension Load
• The tension loading can be calculated from the known
weights of the drill collars and drill pipe below the point of
interest.
• When selecting the drillpipe, the maximum tensile load that
the string could be subjected to will have to be considered.
• In addition to the design load calculated on the basis of the
string hanging freely in the wellbore the following safety
factors and margins are generally added.
321
9.6. Tension Load (Continued)
• The tension loading can be calculated from the known
weights of the drill collars and drill pipe below the point of
interest.
• If the drillpipe is to remain in tension throughout the drilling
process, drillcollars will have to be added to the bottom of
the drillstring.
• The bouyant weight of the drillcollars must exceed the
bouyant force on the drillpipe and the neutral point within
the length of the drillcollars.
322
• The drillcollars required to provide WOB be added to the
drillcollars required to maintain the drillstring in tension.
• When selecting the drillpipe, the maximum tensile load that
the string could be subjected to will have to be considered.
323
• The tension design is established by consideration of the
following:
1. Tensile forces
2. Design factor
3. Slip crushing design.
324
9.6.1. Tensile Forces (Continued)
Weight Carried
The greatest tension (P) on the drillstring occurs at the top

joint at the maximum drilled depth, this is given by:
…………………………………………………………..(IV.13)
325
Weight Carried (Continued)
where:
Ldp = length of drillpipe per foot, ft
Wdp = weight of drillpipe per unit length, lb/ft
Ldc = weight of drillcollars, ft
Wdc = weight of drillcollars per unit length, lb/ft
BF = Buoyancy factor, dimensionless
326
The drillstring should not be designed to its maximum yield
strength to prevent the drillpipe from yielding and deforming.
At yield, the drillpipe will have:
1. Deformation made up of elastic and plastic (permanent)

deformation
2. Permanent elongation
3. Permanent bend and it may be difficult to keep it
straight.
327
To prevent this, API recommends that the use of maximum
allowable design load (Pa), given by:
................................................................................................
(IV.14)
where:
Pa = max. allowable design load in tension, lb
Pt = theoretical yield strength, lb
0.9 = constant relating proportional limit to yield strength
328
The Margin of Overpull is the minimum tension force above
expected working load to account for any drag or stuck pipe From
Eq. IV.13 and IV.14 we obtain:
MOP = Pa – P.......................................................................(IV.15)
DF = Pa / P........................................................................(IV.16)
Where:
MOP = margin of overpull, lb
DF = design factor, dimensionless 329
Where:
MOP = Margin of overpull, lb
DF = Design Factor, dimensionless
Pa = Max. allowable design load in tension, lb
P = Theoretical yield strength, lb
330
Maximum Length of Pipe
• Re-arranging equations IV.13, IV.14 and IV.15 gives the
maximum length of pipe which can be used from a given
grade/weight of drillpipe:
...........................................(IV.16)
Where:
Ldp = length of drillpipe per foot, ft
Ldc = weight of drillcollars, ft. 331
Maximum Length of Pipe (Continued)
Wdc = weight of drillcollars per unit length, lb/ft

BF = buoyancy factor, dimensionless
Pt = theoretical yield strength, lb
0.9 = constant relating proportional limit to yield strength,
dimensionless
MOP= margin of overpull, lb.
332
Shock Loading
The additional tensile force generated by shock loading is

given by:
Fs = 1500 x Wdp............................................................(IV.17)
Where:
Fs = shock loading, lbf
333
Bending
The additional tensile force generated by shock loading is

given by:
Fb = 63 x θ x Wdp x D..................................................(IV.18)
Where:
Θ = dog-leg severity, in °/100 ft
D = outside diameter of pipe, inches.
334
Bending

Fb= bending forces, lbf.
335
9.6.2. Design Factor
• A design factor of 1.6 should be applied to the tension loads

calculated above if shock loading is not accounted for.
• If the shock loading is quantified and included in the load
calculation, a design factor of 1.3 can be used.
336
9.6.3. Slip Crushing Design
• The maximum allowable tension load must also be designed

to prevent slip crushing of the pipe.
• The equations used are as follows:
TS = TL (SH/ST)………………...………………(IV.19)
Where:
TS = tension load due to slip crushing, lb
TL = static load tension, lb.
337
9.6.3. Slip Crushing Design (Continued)
SH/ST = Hoop stress to tension stress ratio as derived from

the equation below :
.........................................................................................(IV.20)
Where:
SH = hoop stress, psi
ST = tensile stress, psi
D = OD of the pipe, inch.
338
9.6.3. Slip Crushing Design (Continued)
K = later load factor on slips (1/tan (y + z))

y = slip taper (typically 9.4625 degrees)
z = arctan m
m = coefficient of friction, dimensionless
Ls = length of slips, inch.
339
9.7. Vertical Well Drillstring Design Procedure
1. Choose a weight and grade of pipe to satisfy the collapse
conditions
2. Using the pipe chosen in 1. calculate the tension loading,
including buoyancy effects. Draw the tension loading line and
also the maximum allowable load line.
3. Modify the tension load as given in 2. by applying a design
factor, MOP and safety factor. Three design lines are thus
generated.
340
9.7. Vertical Well Drillstring Design Procedure
(Continued)
4. If any of these design lines exceed the maximum allowable
load, a higher rated drillpipe must be used for that section of
pipe.
5. Calculate the new tension loading line for the new drill
string and repeat steps 3. and 4
341
10. Directional and Horizontal Well Drillstring
Design Procedure
• Drill-string design is of utmost importance for operations in
highly deviated, horizontal and extended reach wells.
• It is a well known fact that drill-string failure represents one
of the major causes for fishing operations which may lead to
millions of dollars in losses for the Industry.
342
10. Directional and Horizontal Well Drillstring
Design Procedure (Continued)
Among the factors that should be considered when designing
drill-strings, it may be mentioned:
1. Maximum expected loads

2. Accumulated fatigue
3. Buckling
4. Hydraulics
5. Equipment availability.
343
10.1. The Buckling Factor
• Drill-string buckling prediction will be very important while

drilling extended reach wells.
• The behavior of the string in a long, high inclined slant or in
a horizontal section of the well will sometimes be
determinant in terms of maximum reach and steering
capability.
344
10.1. The Buckling Factor (Continued)
• When drilling an directional or horizontal, the trajectory of

the well may need adjustments according to the lithology
being encountered. A body of shale, for example, may
intercalate a sandstone oil reservoir.
• Since the shale should be avoided in order to prevent low
productivity and completion problems, the well must be
deviated in this point.
345
10.1. The Buckling Factor (Continued)
• However, in a long reach well, to deviate from this shale can

be a difficult task due to the high friction forces generated by
the contact between the wellbore and the helically buckled
string.
• A helically buckled string will cause the friction force along
the pipe to increase and, therefore, less force will be
transferred to the bit making difficult further advances.
346
10.1.1. Critical Buckling Factor
• Buckling occurs when the effective compressive load

exceeds some critical value.
• Table VI.4 and VI.5 summarize axial force applied to the
pipe and the shape it will assume, This will be a good guide
in terms of buckling prediction for inclined/horizontal wells.
347
10.1.1. Critical Buckling Factor (Continued)
Table VI.4. Axial load and pipe configuration (Hill et al., 1996).
348
10.1.1. Critical Buckling Factor (Continued)
Table VI.5. Axial compressive force and pipe configuration

(Hill et al., 1996). 349
10.1.2. Influence of Torque
A model considering the influence of torque on the critical

helical buckling force was derived and the following equations
resulted:
………………………….........................................(IV.21)
…………………………………………………………..(IV.22)
where:
350
10.1.2. Influence of Torque (Continued)
Where:
F = Axial load acting on the pipe, lbf.
E = Young’s modulus, psi.
I = Moment of inertia, in4.
EI = Bending Stiffness, lbf. in2.
T = Torque on the string, lbf.ft.
351
w = unit weight of the pipe (immerse in fluid), lbf/ft.

r = radial clearance between the pipe and the wellbore, in.
p = length of helix pitch, ft.
α = well inclination, degree.
352
• Equations VI.21 and VI.22 form a system which solution

gives the values for the critical force F and pitch p for the
helix formed by the pipe inside a wellbore under the action of
force F and torque T.
353
If in equations VI.21 and VI.22, torque is set to zero, then the

expression for critical buckling force previously presented can
be recovered substituting in equation VI.21 the value for p 2
obtained from equation VI.22. This will result in equation
VI.22, presented in Tables VI.4 and VI.5 as the critical helical
buckling force without considering torque.
354
…………………………………………………………(IV.23)
Where:
F = Axial load acting on the pipe, lbf.
E = Young’s modulus, psi.
I = Moment of inertia, in4.
EI = Bending Stiffness, lbf. in2.
355
r = radial clearance between the pipe and the wellbore, in.

α = well inclination, degree.
356
10.2. Torque and Drag Prediction
• In a directional well, the friction between the drillstring and

the walls of the well produces drag and torque.
• Drag is produced when the drillstring is moving and torque is
produced when the drillstring is rotating.
• Once an estimation of maximum loads is obtained, a safety
factor should be applied over those values to account for
extra loads resulted from inefficient hole cleaning, pipe stuck,
wellbore instability, etc.
357
10.3. Fatigue
• The drill-string is submitted to great stress variation during

operations in directional, horizontal and ER wells. Besides
dynamic and static loads, also temperature variations and
corrosion will make the high stress concentration areas
susceptible to fatigue damage.
358
10.3. Fatigue (Continued)
• The normal practice to avoid fatigue failure is to inspect the

drill-string after a certain period of time or after a certain
footage drilled.
• Although inspection is a common practice in the Industry,
fatigue failure keeps plaguing drilling operations causing
heavy losses yearly.
359
10.3. Fatigue (Continued)
• One solution that could minimize those failures would be to

individually track the efforts undergone by each element of
the drill-string.
360
10.4. Hydraulic
• Hydraulics will be very important when drilling directional,

horizontal and extended reach wells.
• Besides the fact that an efficient bottom hole cleaning will
aid the rate of penetration, sufficient energy must be provided
to the mud to carry the cuttings through the long high
inclined sections.
361
10.4. Hydraulic (Continued)
• Turbulent flow is normally more efficient to clean the

wellbore than laminar flow.
• However, the flow rate necessary to provide turbulent flow
may be so high that it will exceed the rig pumps capability in
terms of pump pressure.
• This situation will be more common when a mud motor is
added to the string.
362
10.4. Hydraulic (Continued)
• Use of large diameter drill pipes may minimize hydraulic

problems since it will imply in less friction loss inside the
string and a more constrained annular.
• When these drill pipes are not available, another solution will
be the use of drilling fluids with improved cuttings transport
capability.
363
11. Standard Used on Vertical Well Drillstring
Design and Drillstring Inspection
1. API RP 7G
specifies the requirements for each level of inspection and
procedures for the inspection and testing of used drill stem
elements. This document has been prepared to address the
practices and technology commonly used in inspection.
364
References
• Bourgoyne, A.T., Millheim, K.K., & Chevenert, M.E. (1986). Applied
Drilling Engineering. Richardson, Texas: Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Chapter 1,2,5 & Chapter 6
• Mitchell, R.F., Miska, S.Z. 2011. Fundamental of Drilling
Engineering. SPE Textbook Series Vol. 12, Houston, USA. Chapter
1,3,5,6 & Chapter 9.
• H. Rabia, Well Engineering and Construction. Chapter 14
• Heriot-Watt University, Drilling Engineering. Chapter 3 and Chapter
11
365
References (Lanjutan)
• CURRY, D., FEAR, M., GOVZITCH, A., AGHAZADA, L. 2005.
Technical Limit Specific Energy: An Index to Facilitate Performance
Evaluation. Proceeding of SPE/IADC Drilling conference. 23-25
February. Amsterdam: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
• AMADI, K., 2020 Application of Mechanical Specific Energy

Techniques in Reducing Drilling Cost in Deepwater Development.
Proceeding of SPE Deepwater Drilling and Completions Confrence.
20-21 June. Texas: Society of Petroleum Engineers
366
• Xu, X., Meng, Y., Liu, Y., & Ji, Y. (2019). A study on weight-
on-bit data correction method of a near-bit measuring
tool. Advances in Mechanical Engineering.
367
• API, n.d. API Spec 7K. s.l.:American Petroleum Institute.
• API, n.d. API Spec 8C. s.l.:American Petroleum Institute.
• API, n.d. API Spec 4F. s.l.:American Petroleum Institute.
• API, n.d. API RP 53. s.l.:American Petroleum Institute.
• API, n.d. API Spec 16D. s.l.:American Petroleum Institute.
• API, n.d. API Spec 5D. s.l.:American Petroleum Institute.
368
TERIMA KASIH
369

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TM 6004 – Teknik Pemboran Lanjut

PRESENTASI LITERATUR UTS

Babas Samudra Hafwandi (22220003)

Babas Samudra Hafwandi (22220003)

Courtesy : Thomson Reuters, Corporate Data

Drilling rigs are used to construct the well. This includes

Figure I.1. Schematic of drawworks and block and tackle

= block-and-tackle efficiency (dimensionless)

Table I.1. Efficiency factors for block-and-tackle system (K = 1.04)

• Drilling rigs have many applications for wire rope.

• The crown block and traveling block consist of sheaves

• Wire rope is made from cold-drawn carbon steel of various

1.Extra improved plow steel (EIPS)

• The nominal strength of wire rope depends on the materials

• The derrick and substructure play an important role in

• Derricks can handle sections called stands, which are

• The substructure provides the height required for the blowout

The fluid-circulating system provides hydraulic power to the

• Improved pumping characteristics can be expected when a

• The surge chamber greatly dampens the pressure surges

• The centrifugal pump plays an important role in the

Figure I.3. Centrifugal pump diagram (Sahdev. 2008).

• The drilling fluid is handled by a variety of equipment during

Figure I.5. Top Drive (Bull 20310., 2008).

• The drillstring connects the surface equipment with the drill

• The drillstring is basically composed of two major portions,

• Range 2 drillpipe is used most commonly. Since each joint of

• The BHA is the lower section of the drillstring.

• The buckling tendency of the relatively thin walled drillpipe

Pin ID Pipe Body

Internal Figure I.6.

The well control system enables the driller to:

The well control system enables the driller to:

4. Move the drillstring up and down with the well closed

Figure I.7. BOP Stack (Mitchell, et al, 2011). 73

• An optimal drilling operation requires close control over a

The major components that need to be selected and sized for

Cf = Drilled cost per unit depth

tb = Total rotating time during the bit run

Babas Samudra Hafwandi (22220003)

Figure II.1. P-Z Diagram representing pore pressures (Heriott-Watt

Figure II.2. Mud density compared to pore pressure gradient

Figure II.3. Abnormal formation

rb= rf x f + rm (1-f )………………………………(II.1)

rb= bulk density of porous sediment

Figure II.4. Pore Pressure, Fracture Pressure and Overburden

Figure II.5. Overpressured Formation (Heriott-Watt University. 2005). 152

Figure II.6. Underpressured formation (Heriott-Watt University. 2005). 153

Figure II.7. Clay diagenesis of

• A geophysicist who specializes in computer-assisted analysis

Figure II.9. Relationships between

• The lithology is determined by collecting fresh rock

• Variations in size, shape, and volume of shale fragments in

• If the formation pressure becomes greater than the drilling

• Spaling shale appears, longer, thinner, and more splintery

• The cation exchange capacity of the shale cuttings can be

• This can be detected by characteristic zones of high gas

• This can be detected by characteristic zones of high gas

Verification is required to ensure the formation pressure value

A. Interval Transit Time

• When the shale interval transit time falls significantly above

• Hottman and Johnson presented one of the first empirical

Figure II.10. Hottman and Johnson