Diagnostic Techniques for

Condition Monitoring
of Power Transformers

Engr. Md. Ismail Hossain PEng.

Superintending Engineer
NPTND Project
PGCB, Dhaka

1
1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical distribution equipment is generally
designed for a certain economic service life.

Equipment life is dependent on operating

environment, maintenance program and the quality
of the original manufacture and installation.

Beyond this service life period they are not expected

to render their services up to expectation with
desired efficiency.

2
INTRODUCTION
Generally due to poor quality of raw material,
workmanship and manufacturing techniques or due
to frequent electrical, mechanical and thermal
stresses during the operation, many equipment fail
much earlier than their expected economic life span.

The concept of simple replacement of failed power

equipments in the system either before or after their
economic service life, is no more valid in the present
scenario of financial constraints. 3
 Power Transformer Faults
INTRODUCTION
 Explore new approaches/techniques of monitoring,
diagnosis, life assessment and condition evaluation,
and possibility of extending the life of existing assets
(i.e. circuit breaker, cables, transformers, etc.)
 Minimization of the service life cycle cost is one of
the stated tasks of the electrical power system
engineers.

4
For electrical utilities this implies for example to
fulfill requirements from customers and authorities
on reliability in power supply at a minimal totalcost.

The main goal is therefore to reach a cost effective

solution using available resources which is
captured by the concept of Asset Management.

5
 Maintenance Management

Today the paradigm has changed from traditional

calendar based to condition based maintenance and
efforts are being channeled to explore techniques to
monitor, diagnose and assess condition of power
system equipment

This has led to the development of various on- and

off-line non-intrusive tests in recent years that allow
diagnosing the integrity of power system equipment
to optimize the maintenance effort thereby ensuring
maximum availability and reliability

6
 Condition Based Monitiring

Ageing asset population Age by itself is not a good

predictor of future performance

Must be able to fully justify decisions in

terms of proven engineering principles
Cannot make sound asset management
decisions unless you understand asset condition

7
 What is CBM?

Combining all available practical and theoretical

knowledge and experience of assets to:

Define current condition and use this to estimate

future condition and performance

Provide a sound engineering basis for evaluating risks

and benefits of potential investment strategies

Uses a well developed methodology (with practical

experience of successful application)

Provides a framework for continual improvement

(information and definition of condition)
8
 Why condition based?

Ageing asset population

Pressures to maintain/improve performance and to
reduce costs

Age (by itself) is not an acceptable reason to replace

assets

Must demonstrate need and consequences, condition

and future performance

Cannot make good Asset Management decisions

unless you understand asset condition!
9
 Condition Based Management
Define asset condition (Health Index)
Link condition to performance & probability of failure
(PoF)
Calibrate Health Index/PoF against historic fault
rates
Estimate future condition and performance
Evaluate effect of investment programmes on future
condition and performance
Provides an ENGINEERING basis to evaluate risk
and determine investment requirements

10
 Defining condition and future performance
Need understanding of:

Degradation and failure processes

Condition assessment techniques

Practical knowledge of assets,

Operating context

Everything is related back to physical condition and

degradation processes - maximising the value of
available experience of the assets 11
Transformer Insulating Oil
& Paper Diagnostics

12
 Oil & Paper Tests in Main Tank & OLTC

1. Oil Quality Test

Physical Properties
Visual Appearance
Colour
Flash Point
Viscosity
Density
Pour Point
IFT
Particle Count

13
Oil & Paper Tests in Main Tank & OLTC

1. Oil Quality Test

Chemical Properties
Moisture Content
Acidity
Corrosive Sulphur
Oxidation Stability
Sludge Sediment

14
 Oil & Paper Tests in Main Tank & OLTC

1. Oil Quality Test

Electrical Properties
Breakdown Voltage
Dissipation Power Factor

2. DGA

15
Insulation Condition Assessment
Life Span of Power Transformers Depends on
Integrity of Insulation
Most Commonly Used Insulations for Power
Transformers
OIL
• Provides overall insulation to the transformers
• Acts as coolant in extinguishing arcs
• Provides the means to monitor insulation
condition and operation of
transformers
PAPER
Provides insulation to the conductor in the
transformer windings 16
Insulation Condition Assessment
PRIMARY STRESSES

1. Stresses applied on the transformer due

to normal
operation:
• Thermal
• Electrical
• Mechanical

2. Application of these stresses can be:

• Continuous
• Cyclic
• Intermittent
17
Insulation Condition Assessment
SECONDARY STRESSES
1. Factors that can influence the ageing rate when
primary
stresses are applied
2. Simply known as Ageing Factors
Examples of these Ageing Factors can be:
3. Operational factors of the transformers
• Environmental factors i.e. radiation, moisture or
water, oxidative agents and corrosive materials
• Technological factors i.e. type of oil and paper
used
• Tests done on the transformers that can influence
the performance of the insulation system

18
Insulation Condition Assessment

Oil Insulation Deterioration – Reversible

1. Oil insulation condition can be reversed
through on-line filtration
2. Can reduce the effect of the Ageing Factors
3. Can prolong serviceability of the oil
insulation

19
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Paper Insulation Degradation – Irreversible

• Paper insulation degradation is irreversible
• Oil filtration has negligible effect on reversibility of paper
degradation
• Ageing of paper directly linked to its mechanical
strength
• Loss of mechanical strength eventually leads to loss of
dielectric strength
• Once paper loses its dielectric strength, the transformer
is deemed to have reached the end of its service life
• Thus, the life of a transformer can be effectively
determined by the life of its paper insulation

20
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Three most common degradation factors of

cellulose:
Thermal
1. When exposed to heat up to 220ºC, the
glycosidic bond tend to
break and open the glucose molecule rings
2. By-products:
• Free glucose
• H20
• CO
• CO2
• Organic acids

21
Insulation Condition Assessment

Three most common degradation factors of

cellulose:
Oxidative
1. Presence of oxygen promotes oxidation
2. Glycosidic bond weakens
3. Causes scission to the cellulose chain
4. By-products include H20
Hydrolytic
1. Presence of water and acids
2. Glycosidic bond exposed to slicing
3. Causes scission to the cellulose chain
4. By-products include free glucose
22
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Degradation By-Products
1. It can be observed that by-products related to paper
degradation
can include the followings:
• CO
• CO2
• H2O
• Organic acids
• Free glucose molecules
2. With H2O and organic acids present in the oil, the free
glucose
molecules can degrade to 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfuryl or
5H2F

23
 Insulation Condition Assessment
Degradation By-Products
3. 5H2F is an unstable free glucose molecule and can
decompose
further to other furaldehyde as follows:
• 2-furfuryl alcohol (2FOL)
• 2-furaldehyde (2FAL)
• 2-acetyl furan (2ACF)
• 5-methyl-2-furfuryl (5M2F)
4. All these 5 compounds of glucose or degradation of glucose
are
known as Furans.
5. 2FAL is the most stable in the group
6. Furan generation is exclusively due to paper degradation
unlike
CO, CO2, H2O or acids which can also be produced through oil
oxidation or breakdown.

24
 Insulation Condition Assessment

When taking an oil sample from a sealed tank

transformer, ensure that the transformer is not under
vacuum by checking the vacuum/pressure gauge
Use a clean glass syringe/beaker (provided by the
laboratory) and follow the proper sampling
procedure –
ASTM D923 & D3613 (IEC 60475 & IEC 60567)
Interpret the quantified results to help determine the
relative health of the transformer, offer clues to the
origin
of potential problems and develop a strategy to
avoid
catastrophic failure – IEEE C57.106
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Important factors to be considered prior

to taking a
sample:
1. Sample Containers
2. Sampling Technique
3. Weather condition
4. Sample storage and transport

26
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Characteristic of Sample Containers:

500 ml or 1 liter (Duplicate)
Syringe – DGA
Seal the sample from external contamination
Store samples in the dark to prevent from
photodegradation
Cleaning and preparation of valves
Avoid liquid spillage, some oil may still contains
PCBs
Identification of the sample and apparatus
information
Sampling outdoors in rain, strong wind and night time
should be avoided
Should not be stored longer than a few days before
sending to the laboratory for analysis
Insulation Condition Assessment

28
Insulation Condition Assessment

29
 Insulation Condition Assessment

To effectively interpret DGA results requires insights in

the characteristics of dissolved gas in oil evolution, an
understanding of transformer design, and knowledge of
materials used by transformer manufacturer and
operating conditions – ASTM D3612
ASTM D3612 Test methods for analysis of dissolved
gases by gas chromatography
IEEE C57.104 Guide for interpretation of gases

30
 Insulation Condition Assessment

On-Line Assessment of Insulation Condition

1. Oil Quality Tests – to assess the physical, electrical and
chemical properties of the oil
2. Dissolved Gas-in-oil Analysis – to detect and identify
incipient faults
3. Furan Compound Analysis – to detect and identify
degradation of paper insulation (on-line test)
4. Degree of Polymerization Test – to measure
degradation of paper insulation (intrusive mechanism)

31
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Oil Screening Tests

1. Colour – serious contamination
2. IFT – moisture in oil (> 15 mN/ m)
3. Neutralization Number – level of acidity (< 0.2 mg KOH / gm)
4. Dielectric Strength – contaminants (water & conducting particles) ( > 30 kV)
5. 5. Water Content – amount of dissolved water in ppm (< 30 ppm)

32
 Insulation Condition Assessment

IEEE C57.106 Limits – Oil Quality Tests

Colour – 0.5
IFT – > 25 mN/ m for F 69 kV
Neutralization Number – < 0.2 mg KOH / gm
Dielectric Strength – > 20 kV for F 69 kV for 1 mm gap
Water Content – < 27 ppm for F 69 kV at 50 0C

33
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Other Oil Quality Tests

• Specific Gravity
• Viscosity
• Power Factor
• Resistivity
• Flash Point
• Visual
• PCB Content
• Inhibitor Content

34
Oil Quality Screening Tests
Water Content (D 1533 / IEC 733)
A low water content is necessary to obtain and maintain
acceptable electrical strength and low dielectric losses in
insulation systems.
Color (D 1500) The color of a new oil is generally
accepted as an index of the degree of refinement. For
oils in service, an increasing or high color number is an
indication of contamination, deterioration, or both.
Dielectric Breakdown (D 877 / D 1816 / IEC 156)
It is a measure of the ability of an oil to withstand electrical
stress at power frequencies without failure. A low value
for the dielectric-breakdown voltage generally serves to
indicate the presence of contaminants such as water,
dirt, or other conducting particles in the oil.

35
Oil Quality Screening Tests
Neutralization Number, NN (D 664)
A used oil having a high neutralization number indicates that
the oil is either oxidized or contaminated with materials such as
varnish, paint, or other foreign matter.
Interfacial Tension, IFT (D 971)
The interfacial tension of an oil is the force in dynes per
centimeter or millinewton per meter required to rupture the oil
film existing at an oil-water interface. When certain
contaminants such as soaps, paints, varnishes, and oxidation
products are present in the oil, the film strength of the oil is
weakened, thus requiring less force to rupture. For oils in
service, a decreasing value indicates the accumulation of
contaminants, oxidation products, or both.

36
 Oil Quality Screening Tests

Index = IFT/NN. This index provides a more sensitive and

reliable guide in determining the remaining useful life of a
transformer oil. A Index below 100 indicates that the oil is
significantly oxidized and that the oil needs to be replaced in
the near future.

37
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Non-fault gases - Oxygen (O2) & Nitrogen (N2)

Note: If the ratio O2/N2 is less than 0.3 then it indicates
overheating
of oil. This is not a standard, use with caution.
Fault gases - Hydrogen (H2), Acetylene (C2H2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) Ethylene (C2H4), Ethane (C2H6)
Methane (CH4)
Insulation Condition Assessment

39
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Dissolved Gas-in-oil Analysis

Fault Condition Key Gases
Overheated Oil Methane, Ethane & Ethylene
Partial Discharge Hydrogen & Acetylene
Overheated Cellulose Carbon Monoxide & Carbon
Dioxide
Non-Fault Gases are Oxygen & Nitrogen

40
Insulation Condition Assessment

Fault Condition Key Gases

Thermal Oil Major – Ethylene & Methane
Minor – Ethane & Hydrogen
Electrical – low energy Major – Hydrogen & Methane
Minor – Ethane & Ethylene
Electrical – high energy Major – Acetylene & Hydrogen
Minor – Ethylene & Methane
Thermal Cellulose Major – Carbon monoxide & Carbon
dioxide
Minor – Methane & Ethylene

41
 Insulation Condition Assessment

IEEE Limit

Hydrogen (H2) 100 ppm

Oxygen (O2) N/A
Nitrogen (N2) N/A
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 350 ppm
Methane (CH4) 120 ppm
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 2500 ppm
Ethylene (C2H4) 50 ppm
Ethane (C2H6) 65 ppm
Acetylene (C2H2) 35 ppm

42
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Dissolved Gas-in-oil Analysis

Ratio Method is used for fault analyzing, not for fault detection.
Ratio Method Ratios
Roger’s C2H2/C2H4 , CH4/H2 & C2H4/ C2H6
IEEE CH4/H2, C2H2/C2H4, C2H2/ CH4, C2H6/ C2H2,
C2H4/ C2H6
Never make a decision based on only ratio. Take into
consideration the gas generation rates and amount of total
combustible gases.

43
 Insulation Condition Assessment

 Roger’s Ratio comparison methods look at pairs of gases,

and
develop a coding system to help define potential fault
conditions
Roger’s Ratio Code
C2H2 / C2H4 CH4 / H2 C2 H4 / C2H6
< 0.1 0 1 0
0.1 -<1.0 1 0 0
1.0 - <=3.0 1 2 1
> 3.0 2 2 2

44
 Insulation Condition Assessment

TDCG (ppm) Status Remark

F 720 Condition 1 Transformer working satisfactorily. Look
for individual gas exceeding respective limit.
721-1920 Condition 2 Faults may be present. Additional
investigation required based on individual
gas exceeding respective limit.
1921-4630 Condition 3 Faults probably present. Additional
investigation required based on individual
gas exceeding respective limit.
> 4630 Condition 4 Continued operation could result in failure of
the transformer
As per IEEE C57.104

45
 Insulation Condition Assessment

CO2/ CO ratio indicates cellulose degradation

CO2 / CO ratio Condition of Cellulose
< 3 Severe Arcing & Short circuit damage
3 -<5 Indicates concern
5 - <=11 Normal
> 11 Indicates damage due to general
overheating
According to IEEE C57.104 the normal value is 7

46
 Exercise (Oil Condition)

20
39
Exercise (Oil Condition)
Transformer Gas Analysis
Component ppm in oil
HYDROGEN (H2) 10
OXYGEN (O2) 26200
NITROGEN (N2) 48500
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) 41
METHANE (CH4) 5
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 570
ETHYLENE (C2H4) 2
ETHANE (C2H6) 2
ACETYLENE (C2H2) 1
 Exercise (Oil Condition)

Transformer Gas Analysis

Component ppm in oil

HYDROGEN (H2) 720
OXYGEN & ARGON (O2 + A) 17000
NITROGEN (N2) 45400
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) 405
METHANE (CH4) 1310
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 6050
ETHYLENE (C2H4) 5200
ETHANE (C2H6) 1810
ACETYLENE (C2H2) 256

48
 Exercise (Paper Condition)

Transformer Gas Analysis

Component ppm in oil
HYDROGEN (H2) 105
OXYGEN & ARGON (O2) 18000
NITROGEN (N2) 33400
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) 870
METHANE (CH4) 400
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 12,100
ETHYLENE (C2H4) 260
ETHANE (C2H6) 28
ACETYLENE (C2H2) 52
ppb in oil
2FAL 195

49
Exercise (Oil + Paper Condition)

Transformer Gas Analysis

Component ppm in oil
HYDROGEN (H2) 103
OXYGEN & ARGON (O2 + A) 16762
NITROGEN (N2) 20458
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) 0
METHANE (CH4) 814
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 1816
ETHYLENE (C2H4) 109
ETHANE (C2H6) 75
ACETYLENE (C2H2) 118
ppb in oil
2FAL 225

50
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Furanic Compound Analysis

Fault Condition Furan Compound

Overheating or Short circuit 2FAL
Excessive Moisture 2FOL
Lightning Strikes 2ACF
Intense Overheating 5M2F
Oxidation 5H2F
Concentration limits of furan compounds must be
supported by
CO2/CO Ratio to assess paper degradation

51
Insulation Condition Assessment

2FAL limits (ppb in oil):

58 – 292 – Normal Aging
654 – 2021 – Accelerated Aging
2374 – 3277 – Excessive Aging
3851 – 4524 – High Risk of Failure

52
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Criteria to select transformers for further investigation

• Transformer Age
• Operational Criterion – number of faults,
switching, lightning, etc.
• DGA Criterion (oil) – Individual
concentrations of CH4, C2H2,
C2H4, C2H6 & H2 in ppm & Roger’s/IEEE
Ratio
• DGA Criterion (paper) – Individual
concentrations of CO2 & CO in
ppm & CO2/CO Ratio
• Furan Criterion – 2FAL concentration in
ppb & others if detected

53
 Insulation Condition Assessment
Correlation between TS, DP and Furan

• Ageing of paper insulation is related to the decrease in

TS.
• TS is directly related to DP – ASTM D 4243.
• Decrease in DP is directly related to the increase in
Furan.
• Thus, as paper aged, it loses its TS. Loss of TS
indicates decrease of DP. Decrease of DP causes
increase in Furan in the insulating oil. It can be deduced
that as paper aged towards its end of service life, the
level of Furan content increases.

54
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Degree of Polymerization

• One of the most dependable means of

determining
paper deterioration and remaining life of
the cellulose.
• The cellulose molecules is made up of a
long chain of
glucose rings which form the mechanical
strength of the
molecule and the paper.
• DP is the average number of these rings
in the
molecule.
• As paper ages or deteriorates from heat,
acids, oxygen
and water the number of these rings
decrease.
55
Insulation Condition Assessment
Degree of Polymerization

Following Table has been developed by EPRI to

estimate
remaining paper life
1. New insulation 1000 DP to 1400 DP
2. 60% to 66% life remaining 500 DP
3. 30% life remaining 300 DP
4. 0 life remaining 200 DP

56
 Insulation Condition Assessment

• The life of a transformer can be effectively determined by the life of its

paper insulation.
• DP is considered direct approach to determine the paper insulation
condition but it is intrusive. Some are skeptical since integrity of paper
insulation may be disturbed and may further damage the paper
insulation.
• Alternatively, it can be achieved through the use of paper degradation
byproducts
e.g. CO, CO2, CO2/CO, 2 FAL, H2 as indicators. It is non-intrusive
and requires only samples of the transformer oil which can be obtained
without any shutdown.
• The challenge is to develop a Mathematical Model to Estimate DP
Value of
Paper Insulation based on the Paper Degradation By-Products i.e.
DP = f (CO, CO2, CO2/CO, 2 FAL, H2)

57
 LTC – OIL ANALYSIS

By plotting the relative percentages of methane,

ethylene
and acetylene onto a special triangular coordinate
system, a graphical output of the likely cause of gassing
is generated.
The causes are categorized as follows.
• D1 – Discharges of low energy
• D2 – Discharges of high energy
• T1 – Thermal faults < 300°C
• T2 – Thermal faults 300°C to 700°C
• T3 - Thermal faults > 700°C
• DT – Mixture of thermal and electrical faults
• PD – Partial discharge (No samples indicated this type
of fault)

58
 Case Study

The following gas levels were detected via

DGA on the
oil from the load tap changer:
– 42 ppm of methane
– 17 ppm of Ethylene
– 0 ppm of acetylene
Calculate percentages of each gas and
use Duval’s
triangle approach to find the cause

59
LTC – OIL ANALYSIS

60
 LTC – OIL ANALYSIS

Guideline set by an US Utility

When the acetylene or hydrogen reaches a threshold

level of
500ppm the unit is put to monthly DGA testing schedule
DGA monthly testing schedule
Hydrogen > 1500 ppm
Acetylene > 1000 ppm
Ethylene > 1000 ppm
When Ethylene level exceeds the maximum value the
unit is
removed from service

61
Transformer Basic On-Site & Off Line Diagnostic Testing

62
 Electrical Tests

1. Basic Electrical Tests

Insulation Resistance
• Traditional Polarization Index (PI) test
to detect moisture content
Tan Delta
• To detect water in cellulose
and chemical contamination
Winding Resistance
• To detect open or short circuits or poor electrical connection in
the windings
Turns Ratio
• To detect Shorted Turns

63
 Electrical Tests

2. Advanced DiagnosticTests
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM)
Polarization Depolarization (PDC)
Frequency Dielectric Spectroscopy (FDS)
Partial Discharge (PD)
OLTC Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA)
OLTC Vibration Signature Analysis (VSA)

64
 On-site Testing

Categorization of On-site Tests

Destructive off-line tests are “go/no go” tests
Non destructive off-line tests are diagnostic
tests
Non destructive on-line tests are condition
monitoring tests

65
 On-site Testing

These on-site tests are performed individually or in

combination :
Before energizing a new equipment as a
commissioning test
After maintenance
After network alteration

66
Damaging Factors of Insulation

67
Insulation Condition Assessment

Insulation resistance test (a)

Insulation current test (b)
Power factor (c)
DC voltage withstand (d)
AC voltage with-stand (e)

68
 Insulation Condition Assessment

Method (e) is primarily used in factory tests

Method (d) is primarily used as commissioning test
Practically all routine field tests are made using
nondestructive methods (a), (b) and (c)
Methods (a) and (c) must also be used as
commissioning test
No single test method can be relied upon for
indicating all conditions of weakened insulation

69
 Basic Electrical Tests
Insulation Resistance
Reading corrected to 20oC

Insulation resistance varies inversely with temperature for

most insulting materials
To properly compare periodic measurements of insulation
resistance, it is necessary either to take each measurement
at the same temperature, or to convert each measurement to
the same base temperature i.e. 200C
Polarisation Index is the ratio of the IR reading after 10
minutes to the IR reading after 1minute
PI is used as an index of dryness
Discharge the winding after a Polarisation Index Test for
sufficient time before handling or performing other tests

70
 Basic Electrical Tests
Polarization Index

Interpretation of Polarization Index (PI)

Measurements
PI Value Interpretation
> 4.0 Healthy
4.0 – 2.0 OK
2.0 – 1.5 Marginal Pass
1.5 – 1.0 Deteriorated condition
< 1.0 Failure

71
Basic Electrical Tests

72
Insulation Resistance Test

73
Insulation Resistance Test

74
Insulation Resistance Test

75
Inaccuracies can occur during IR
measurement
due to the following

Effect of Previous Charge

Effect of Temperature
Effect of Moisture
Effect of Age and Curing

76
 Test procedures

Hot resistance test - at least 4 hours after shutdown from full-load

operation, or until temperature is stabilized:
Disconnect the equipment to be tested from other equipment
Ground the winding to be tested for at least 10 minutes
Remove the ground connection and connect the insulation
resistance tester
Take readings at 1 -minute and at 10 minutes
Record the temperature of equipment being tested
Ground the winding again for at least 10 minutes
Cold resistance test - Four to eight hours after the hot resistance test or
when equipment has cooled to approximately ambient temperature
Use same procedure as outlined for the hot resistance test

77
 Temperature Correction

Dry type insulation 40ºC ambient

Liquid type insulation 20ºC ambient
Insulating materials have negative
resistance
characteristics
Spot test reading must be corrected to a
base
temperature

78
Conversion Factors For Converting
Insulation Resistance Test Temperature to 20°C

79
 Polarization Index

Polarization index = R10/R1 = I1/I10

(keeping voltage constant)
where:
R10 = megohms insulation resistance at 10 minutes
R1 = megohms insulation resistanceI at 1 minute
I1 = insulation current at 1 minute
I10 = insulation current at 10 minutes

80
 Interpretation

INSULATION 60/30 SECOND RATIO 10/1 MINUTE RATIO

CONDITION Dielectric Absorption Ratio Polarization Index
Dangerous Less than 1 Less than 1
Poor Less than 1.1 Less than 1.5
Questionable 1.1 to 1.25 1.5 to 2
Fair 1.25 to 1.4 2 to 3
Good 1.4 to 1.6 3 to 4
Excellent Above 1.6 Above 4

81
Step Voltage Test

82
 Basic Electrical Tests
PI
If a PI falls by 30% or more from the previous value then remedial
action such as cleaning, oil-filtering or further investigation should
be considered.
Tan Delta
If the IFT and oil moisture content exceed their respective limits
then Tan Delta test is recommended. This is a good complement to
PI test and as remedial action drying is usually performed.
Field test results must be corrected to 20o C before comparison.

83
Basic Electrical Tests
Tan Delta (DLF) test
• In on site tan delta measurement there are two modes namely Grounded
Specimen Test (GST) and Ungrounded Specimen Test (UST). During GST
mode, the dielectric loss of insulation between one of the windings to
ground will be measured depending on the winding that is being excited.
Under UST mode, dielectric loss of insulation between the two windings
will be measured irrespective of the winding being excited.
• The ratio obtained from the field test should agree with nameplate
value within 0.2% for the insulation system between the high
voltage and low voltage winding at all taps. Otherwise, winding
repair is recommended.
• The ratio obtained from the field test should be within the limit of
0.5% for the insulation system between the high voltage winding
and ground. Otherwise, winding repair is recommended.

84
Power Factor Test

85
Power Factor Test

 For small N, Cos (90 – N) = tan N

 tan N = ir / ic
 ic = OCV
 ir = OCV tan N
 Power loss (dielectric loss) = V ir = OCV2 tan N watt
 Dielectric loss is dependent on voltage and frequency
 Variation of tan N with voltage is an important diagnostic method
and will be part of this course

86
Power Factor Test

 Power factor or dissipation factor is a measure of insulation

dielectric power loss
 Not a direct measure of dielectric strength
 Power-factor values are independent of insulation area or
thickness
 Increase in dielectric loss may accelerate insulation
deterioration because of the increased heating
 Insulation power factor increases directly with temperature
 Temperature corrections to a base temperature must be
made, usually to 20 degree C

87
Power Factor Test

 Windings not at test potential should be grounded

 Refer to IEEE Standard No. 262, 1973
 Test sets consist of a completely shielded, high-voltage,
50-Hz power supply which applies up to 10 kV to the
equipment being tested
 Much simpler and less expensive tester is also available
which applies about 80 volts to the equipment being
tested but not sufficiently shielded against induced
voltages

88
Power Factor Test Set up

89
Temperature correction factors for the power factor
of power transformer windings

 From IEEE Standard No. 262, 1973

where:
FP20 = power factor corrected to 20 degree C
FPT = power factor measured at T degree C
T = test temperature
K = correction factor from table

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Power Factor of Some Common Materials

Material Power Factor approx.

Bakelite 2 - 10%
Vulcanized Fibre 5%
Varnished Cambric 6 - 8%
Mica 2%
Polyethylene 0.03%
New Insulating Oil 0.01-0.2%

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 Insulation Current Test
High Voltage DC/AC Test

 The voltage is slowly raised in discrete steps, allowing

the leakage current to stabilize for a predetermined time
A plot of the leakage current as a function of test voltage
yields information on the condition of the insulation
If the curve is a straight line, it indicates good condition
of the cable
 If the current begins to increase at a rapid rate, indicates
degradation / defects in the cable insulation
After the completion of the test, the cable under test is
grounded for sufficient time to discharge the voltage
build up due to effects of absorption currents

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93
Insulation Current Test

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 HIGH-VOLTAGE, DC/AC TESTS

Very little supply power is required to operate the DC

test set
The DC test set is portable and smaller than an ac, highvoltage
tester
Disconnect the buswork from the unit
 The dc breakdown voltage may range from 1.41 times
the rms ac breakdown voltage to 2.5 times the rms ac
puncture voltage
Cases have indicated that on winding insulation with
some deterioration, the application of overpotential tests
may cause further deterioration, even though the
insulation may not puncture

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 Test Procedure
The machine winding should be grounded for at least 1
hour before conducting the test
The phases should be separated and tested individually
 Lightning arresters and capacitors must be disconnected
Cables and/or bus work should be disconnected if it is
convenient to do so
If the separation of phases is difficult then separation is
needed once for the benchmark tests, and thereafter the
phases may be tested together until deviation from normal
is detected

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 Test procedure

The voltage should be raised abruptly to the first voltage

level with the start of timing for the test.
The ratio of the 1-minute to the l0-minute reading of
insulation current will afford useful indication of
polarization index
This gives the test engineer an idea of insulation dryness
early in the test
The test schedules are arranged to include a minimum of
three points up to and including the maximum voltage

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 Test procedure
If the insulation microampere versus voltage plots are
straight lines, the test may be continued to the maximum
test voltages
The quality of the insulation may be judged by the
position of any curvature or knee in the plot of insulation
current versus test voltage
If curvature or knee appears, the test should be stopped
Upon completion of the dc, high- voltage test, the
winding should be discharged through the special
discharge resistor usually provided with the test set
The winding may be solidly grounded when the voltage
has dropped to zero or after a few minutes of discharge
have occurred
A winding should remain solidly grounded long enough
before restoring the machine to service

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