Using secondary and primary data.

Presentation 7, 8

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First: Using secondary data
 Most researches use some
combination of secondary and
primary data. How about your
research?
 Usually researchers refer to
secondary data first. Why?

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Types of secondary data
 They include both qualitative and
quantitative data and they can be
used in both descriptive and
exploratory research.
 May be classified into 3 types:
1. Documentary
2. Multiple source
3. survey
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Documentary secondary data
 Classified into two:
1. Written materials
2. Non-written materials

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Documentary secondary data
 Classified into two:
1. Written materials:

Organization’s record
Organization’s web site
Reports
Books,
journals,
newspapers

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Documentary secondary data
 Classified into two:
2- Non-written materials
Tape and video recordings
Pictures
Drawings
Films and TV programs
Soft documents (CD)
 The documentary sources you have available will
depend on:
1. Whether you have been granted access to an
organization’s records
2. Your success in locating library, data archive and
commercial sources.

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Survey-based secondary data
 Refers to data collected by questionnaires that have been
analyzed for their original purpose. They provide raw data
tables.
 They may be collected through one of the following
methods:
1. Censuses: usually carried out by the government.
Population census.
2. Continuous regular surveys. They are repeated over time.
They include data collected over the year. e.g., Family
spending survey, labor force survey. Also many other
organizations carry out regular surveys. This source of data
are very useful for conducting a comparative studies.
3. Ad hoc survey: usually one-off surveys and are far more
specific in their subject matter. They include data from
questionnaires that have been taken by independent
researchers, or org.

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Multiple-source secondary data
 Can be based on documentary or on
survey data or mixed. They are 2
types:
1. Area based: focus on geographical
area. E.g., government publications,
Journals.
2. Time series: include, Annual Abstract
of Statistics Regional Trends,
Industry Statistics.

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Working example
 You are interested in the impact of
local culture on management
behavior in the local industrial
organizations.

What are the secondary data may be

used?

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Advantages of secondary data
1. Less expensive and time saving.
2. Longitudinal and comparative studies
became possible.
3. Can result in unforeseen discoveries
through data reanalyzes.
4. Permanent and available.

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Disadvantages of secondary data
1. May be collected for a purpose that does
not match your need.
2. Access may be difficult or costly when data
is collected for commercial reason.
3. Aggregations processes and definitions
may be unsuitable.
4. No real control for data quality.
5. Initial purpose may dictate how data are
presented. e.g., published company
reports presented different from
unpublished, also newspaper report.

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Evaluating secondary data sources
 You need to review the secondary
data with caution to be sure that:
1. They will enable you to answer your
research question and meet your
objectives.
2. Their benefits greater than their cost.
3. You will be allowed access to the
data.

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Overall suitability
 Measurement validity
The validity measured in relation to the
data ability to answer your research
problem and meet your objectives.
e.g., a company may record monthly
sales whereas you are interested in
monthly orders. Here the data are
invalid.

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Overall suitability
 Coverage and unmeasured variables.
You need to make sure that the data
cover your population, cover the time
period you study and covers your
research variables.

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Overall suitability
 Precise suitability
Reliability and validity:
To measure these criterions you look at the
source of data. Source of data from
government organizations are likely to be
reliable. You need to consider the accuracy
and consistency of the data. The methods
the data were collected with, and who is
responsible for data collection are
important to evaluate the reliability and
validity.
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Overall suitability
 Cost and benefits
Comparing the cost of acquiring the
data with benefits they will bring.

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Overall suitability of secondary data
(measurement criteria):
1. does data set contain the information you
require?
2. Do the measures used match those you
required?
3. Is the data set a proxy for the data you
really need?
4. Does it covers the population?
5. Can data about population be separated
from unwanted data?
6. Are the data sufficiently up to date?
7. Are the data cover all the variables?

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Precise suitability
1. How reliable the data is?
2. How credible are the data sources?
- Is the source clear?
- Is the source reliable?
- Do the data have an associated copyright statement?
3. Is the methodology clearly described?
- Is the sampling accurate?
- Who is responsible for collecting and recording the
data?
- Is a copy of the questionnaire included?
- Are you cleared how the data were analyzed and
compiled?

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Precise suitability
4. Are the data likely to contain measurement
bias?
- Why the data were originally collected?
- Who was the target audience and what
was their relationship to the data collector?
- Have there any documented changes?
- How consistent are the data when
compared?
- 5- Are you happy that that the data have
been recorded accurately?

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Cost and benefits
1. What are the financial and time costs
of obtaining these data?
2. Have the data already been entered
into the computer?
3. Do the data benefit overweight the
data cost.

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Home work
 Assess the suitability of the
secondary data for your research?

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Second: collecting primary data
 Observation
 Interviews
 Questionnaire

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Data collection through
observation

Presentation 8

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Observation
 Participative observation:
Here the researcher attempts to participate
fully in the lives of subjects and thus
becomes a member of their group,
organization or community.
 It has its roots in social anthropology.
 But it has been used much less in
management and business research.
 Example: study how significant decisions
are made at a company, by acting as a
member of governing body.

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Researcher roles in this observation
1. Complete participant: the researcher
attempt to become a member of the
group. The researcher does not reveals his
purpose and conceals his identity.
 Here you need to gain the trust of the
group
 Example: you may be able to discover
which meal is most popular among
students at the university’s Cafeteria.

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Researcher roles in this observation
2. Complete observer: The researcher
does not reveals his purpose and
conceals his identity.
 The researcher just observe and does

not take part in the activities of the

group.
 Example: studying the consumer

behavior in supermarkets.

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Researcher roles in this observation
3. Observer as participant:
 Example: you may attend outward-

bound course to assist team building

if you were attending to observe
without taking part in the activities in
the same way as real candidates.
 Your identity as a researcher would

be clear to all concerned.

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Researcher roles in this observation
4. Participant as observer:
Both the subjects and you are aware of the fact that it is
a field work relationship.
You are particularly interested to gain the trust of the
group.
 Example: you are interested to understand the
management attitudes in the company toward their
employees. You negotiate access with the company
management and explain to them the purpose of
your research. Also you should explain the purpose
to the employees under observation. The good thing
here you can ask both about any thing you watch to
confirm your understanding.

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Factors that will determine the
choice of participant observer role:
1. The purpose of your research
2. The time you have to devote to your
research
3. The degree to which you feel suited
to participant observation
4. Organizational access
5. Ethical consideration

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Participant observation: data
collection and analysis
 Types of data generated by participant
observation:
1. Primary observations: you not what
happened or what was said during the
observations.
2. Secondary observations: you note your
interpretations.
3. experimental data: are those data on
your perception and feelings as you
experience the process you are
researching.
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Participant observation: data
collection and analysis
 Types of data generated by participant
observation:
1. Primary observations: you not what
happened or what was said during the
observations.
2. Secondary observations: you note your
interpretations.
3. experimental data: are those data on
your perception and feelings as you
experience the process you are
researching.
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Structured /systematic observation
 It has high level of predetermined structure.
 Structured observation may form only a part of your
data collection approach. Because it tells you how
often things happen rather than why they happen.
 Example: how much time care assistants actually
spent on various caring activities in residential homes
for children.
To do structured observation a self-completion diary form
was designed. This will show by minuets and hours
for each activity (washing, dressing, eating,
toileting..).

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Data collection through semi-
structured and in-depth
interviews

Presentation 8

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Definition of interview
 A purposeful discussion between two
or more people. It can help you to
gather valid and reliable data that are
relevant to your research question
and objectives.

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Types of interview
 Structured interview: using
standardized questions.
 Unstructured interview: informal,
there is no prepared questions before
interview. It is used to explore in
depth a general area in which you are
interested.
 Semi-structured interview: mix
between the two.

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Types of interview
 Another classification based on the
form of interaction between
interviewer and interviewees:
 Qualitative interviews: divided into
two groups:
1. One to one: face-to-face, telephone
interviews.
2. One to many: focus group
interviews.
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Links between types of interviews
and research purpose
 Structured: used usually in survey research
and it will be subject to quantitative
analysis. It is used in descriptive and
exploratory studies.
 Semi-structured: used usually in
explanatory studies.
 In depth: used usually in exploratory
studies.
 You may incorporate more than one type of
interview in your study.

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Situations favoring qualitative
research interviews
1. The nature of the approach to research. Is it
exploratory or descriptive approach.
2. The significance of establishing personal contact.
Some interviewees (e.g., managers) usually prefer
personal interviews than filling questionnaire.
3. The nature of the data collection questions. Interview
is best used in the following circumstances: large
number of questions, the questions complex or open-
ended, the order of the questioning need to be
varied.
4. Length of time required and completeness of the
process. The interview is the best.

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Key measures to overcome bias in
qualitative interviews
1. The preparation and readiness for interview.
2. The appropriateness of your appearance at the
interview.
3. Level of information supplied to the interviewee.
4. Your approach to questioning. Phrased clearly
5. The impact of your behavior during the course of the
interview. How to create the atmosphere of
relaxation.
6. You ability to demonstrate attentive listening skill.
7. Your approach to recording information.

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Telephone interview
 The benefit of this may be easy access, speed and
low cost.
 Issues militate against this type:
1. The importance of establishing personal contact.
Especially in terms of sensitive questions.
2. Out of reach to explore participant’s responses. Non-
verbal behavior.
3. The ability to control the pace of a telephone
interview and to record any data may be difficult.
 Telephone interview is likely to be appropriate in
particular circumstances:
Short, follow-up interview to clarify the meaning of some
data where you have already undertaken a face-to-
face. long distance.

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Group interviews
 The researcher act as a facilitator or
moderator of the discussion that occur.
 This is likely to be unstructured.
 It may lead to a rich flow of data. Several
participants.
 High level of skills is needed by the
interviewer.
 Suitable for complexity and in case of
limited data available.
 How to insure the success of group
interview?

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