Osaka University

Recent Topics of Welding Metallurg

y Relating to Hot Cracking
and Embrittlement in Iron and Nick
el-base Alloys
Kazutoshi Nishimoto

Department of Manufacturing Science

Graduate School of Engineering
Osaka University
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Prevalent problems in welds of iron-base and nickel-
base alloys
Osaka University
Nieq ＝ %Ni ＋ 30×%C ＋ 0.5×%Mn

σ phase em The use of

brittlement new alloys or new
δferrite content welding processes

Hot cracking
Need for researches to
understand their response
to these problems.

Cold cracking Embrittlement by grain

coarsened
・ 475℃ embrittlement

Creq ＝ %Cr ＋ %Mo ＋ 0.5×%Si ＋ 0.5×%Nb

■ New welding processes such as laser welding may cause changes in a susceptibility to weld cracking
that requires further investigation.
■ Invar alloy which has recently become widely used in cryogenic plants, is found sensitive to hot
cracking, but its mechanism is not clarified yet.⇒

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Prevalent problems in welds of iron-base and nickel-
base alloys
Nieq ＝ %Ni ＋ 30×%C ＋ 0.5×%Mn

Osaka University

The use of
σ phase em
new alloys or new
δferrite content brittlement
welding processes

Hot cracking
Need for researches to
understand their response
to these problems.

Cold cracking Embrittlement by grain

coarsened
・ 475℃ embrittlement

Creq ＝ %Cr ＋ %Mo ＋ 0.5×%Si ＋ 0.5×%Nb

■ Embrittlement is also a serious problem in weldments of especially ferritic or duplex stain
less steels.
■ Although many investigations have been conducted into the material behavior producing
embrittlement, rather few of these are useful for predicting the degree of embrittlement of
the alloys during welding and/or in post-heat treatment. ⇒
 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Spinodal Phase Decomposition in Chromium Containin
g Iron base Alloys
Osaka University

∂ 2G Nucleation and growth

(a) Cα’’
2 =0
∂C C0
Cα’
G C Spinodal decomposition
Cα’’
C0
Cα’
Initial Middle Final
■ When ferritic or duplex
Spinodal de
(b) stainless steels containin
α composition
g more than about 20 %
Cr are exposed to temper
α’+α’’ atures of 673-823K, they
G
may suffer from "475 ℃ e
mbrittlement", which som
ewhat limits the operatin
g temperatures of their a
0 Cα’ Cα Cα’’ 1 5nm pplications.
Free energy curve
Phase diagram and Spinodal curve
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Theoretical Analysis of Spinodal Decomposition during
iso-thermal Process
Osaka University

Cahn-Hilliard's non-linear
diffusion equation

∂ K ∂c
■ The Cahn-Hilliard non-linear diffu
∂ D ∂c
3

Cr Cr
sion equation is one of the most us
∂c ∂x ∂x 3

=
Cr
–2 eful approaches to spinodal phase
∂t ∂x ∂x decomposition.

■ Recently, Miyazaki proposed a g

Fourier expression of eneral formula with a Fourier expre
diffusion equation ssion of this non-linear diffusion eq
uation. However, these approaches
are meant to be used, for isotherm
∂Q (h)
= – hβ { D0 + 2h2β 2 K0 Q (h)+ 1 D1 R(h)
2
al heat-treatment, and cannot be di
∂t 2 rectly applied these to a phenomen
+ 1 D2S(h)+ 1 D 3T (h)+ ⋅⋅⋅} on during the welding process.
3 4
– 2hβ 4{K1U (h)+ K2V (h)+ K3W (h)+ ⋅⋅⋅}

Lab. Material Joining Process

 The Method of Analysis for Spinodal Decomposition
in thermal cycle process
Osaka University
Input of parameters
Cahn-Hilliard's non-linear β, c Cr, thermal cycle

diffusion equation (extended) Input of initial composition-wave Q0(h)

Calculation of temp. &

∂ D ∂c ∂ K ∂c
3 material constants
Cr Cr

∂c ∂x ∂x 3 Replacement of Fourier
waves for convolution
=
Cr
–2
∂t ∂x ∂x Fourier transformation FFT

Rf = Q f×Qf, S f = Rf×Qf, Tf = S f×Qf

Interdiffusion coefficient U f = k3Qf×Qf, V f = Uf×Qf, W f = V f×Qf
2 2
D= M(Cr) 2 = M0c Fec Cr G
∂ G ∂ Inverse Fourier transformation IFFT

∂cCr ∂cCr2 Calculation of ∂ Q(h)/∂t

Q(h) t+Δt = Q(h) t + {∂Q(h)/∂t}t×Δt

Gradient energy coefficient
K = κ 0 M(c Cr) [Ω(cCr,T) + {∂Ω(cCr,T) /∂c Cr}cCr] Display?
NO
YES
Output of Q(h) & graphing
■ Developed the method of analysis for the decomposit
ion in thermal cycle process by extending the Cahn-Hill
Completion of NO
iard non-linear diffusion equation to this processes and thermal cycle? t = t + Δt
applied it to a computer simulation of phase decompos
YES
ition for 30Cr-2Mo steel.⇒ End
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Two dimensional Evolutio
n the Cr-rich phase indu
Osaka University
ced by Spinodal Decompo
sition in 30Cr-2Mo steel

∂ D ∂c ∂ K ∂c
3

Cr Cr

∂c ∂x ∂x 3

=
Cr
–2
∂t ∂x ∂x

■ In the early stage of decomposition ,until

the 2nd cycle, composition variations deve
lop monotonically with time; however, they
periodically fluctuate until the spinodal dec
omposition has further progressed.

■ On the basis of thus calculated results,

we tried to predict the degree of embrittle
ment due to the spinodal decomposition.

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Theoretical approach for prediction of 475°C embrittlem
ent in 30Cr-2Mo steel
Osaka University

Relationship between ΔHv and ΔvTE Cut-through model

(Mott-Nabarro's equation)
3/ 2
μV 4 / 3 N 1/ 6ε 3/ 2 ⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎫
ΔHV = ⎨ln⎝ ⎠⎬
10 ⎩ V ⎭
3/ 2
1/ 2 4 / 3 ⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎫
= KR V ⎨ln ⎬
⎩ V ⎭⎝ ⎠
Hv : Hardness increment, R : Radius of precipitates,
K : Constant, V : Volume fraction of precipitates,
 : Stiffness, N : Numbers of dislocation,
 : Misfit between matrix and precipitates
3 /2
⎧ ⎛1 ⎫
ΔvTE = KR1/ 2V 4 / 3 ⎨ln ⎞⎬
⎩ ⎝V ⎠⎭

■ The change in hardness ΔHv due to the phase decomposition well agree with the value
of R1/2V4/3{ln(1/V)}3/2 which is a hardenability parameter derived from Mott-Nabarro
precipitation hardening theory.
■ This fact suggests that hardening in this case follows the theory proposed by Mott-Nab
arro.
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Theoretical approach for prediction of 475°C embrittlem
ent in 30Cr-2Mo steel
Osaka University

Relationship between ΔHv and ΔvTE Cut-through model

(Mott-Nabarro's equation)
3/ 2
μV 4 / 3 N 1/ 6ε 3/ 2 ⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎫
ΔHV = ⎨ln⎝ ⎠⎬
10 ⎩ V ⎭
3/ 2
Relationship between R1/2V1/ 4/3{ln(1/V)}
2 4 /3 ⎧ ⎛ 1
3/2
and
⎫
⎞ ΔvTE
= KR V ⎨ln ⎬
⎩ V ⎭⎝ ⎠
Hv : Hardness increment, R : Radius of precipitates,
K : Constant, V : Volume fraction of precipitates,
 : Stiffness, N : Numbers of dislocation,
 : Misfit between matrix and precipitates
3 /2
⎧ ⎛1 ⎫
ΔvTE = KR1/ 2V 4 / 3 ⎨ln ⎞⎬
⎩ ⎝V ⎠⎭
■ On the other hand, experimentally d
etermined the functional relationship
between the change in the transition t
emperature of the Charpy impact ene
rgy ΔvTE, and that in the Vickers hard
ness ΔHv.⇒
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Example of the Calculated value of ΔvTE in the triple pa
ss GTA weldment of 30Cr-2Mo steel
Osaka University
1st pass welding

■ The high value ofΔvTE due to the

475℃ embrittlement can be clearly rec
2nd pass welding

ognized in the HAZ near the bottom of t

he plate on the 2nd/3rd pass welding,
and it becomes dominant as the weld p
ass progresses.

■ It can be also seen that the severely

3rd pass welding

embrittled zone corresponds to the a p

osition that has undergone triple heatin
gs to about 800K.⇒

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Embrittlement due to sigma phase Precipitation
Osaka University

WT.%Cr
0 20 40 60 80 100
1500
800
α α’
Temperature (℃)

1400

Temperature (℉)
σ 1300
700
1200
600 X X XXα+σ σ+α’ 1100
1000
500
X X XX α+α’ 900 ■ Sigma phase precipitation, whic
h degrades not only mechanical p
800 roperties but also corrosion resist
400
X X XX 700 ance in alloys, is well known, but s
till a serious problem in stainless s
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
teel weldments. ⇒
NCr

Phase diagram of Iron-Chromium Alloy

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Microstructures of super duplex stainless steels
(heated at 1073 K for 1.8 ks)
Osaka University

NAS64 SAF2507 DP3W

α
α
γ

γ
α
γ
50µm 50µm 50µm

P
C
S
Ni
60
Cr
3
2N
3206W
3SCu
Mn
04Mo
Ma
NAS
.07.0
RE/
5.8
.1
.4.2
.9
5.0
..5
.0
.2iAF
14732DP
803..0
9.6
.3769.501.7
8245012t0292105e6232P63ria
95W
REW*
40 7l

■ The microstructures of the super duplex stainless steels heated at 1073 K for 1.8ksec, which
demonstrate sigma phase precipitation.
■ Sigma phase precipitated mainly at delta/gamma boundaries in these steels.

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Sigma phase precipitation Curves in super
duplex stainless steels
Osaka University
Area fraction of σ phase (%)

50
45 NAS64 SAF2507 DP3W
Aging temperature
40
1073K
35 1123K
30 1173K
1223K
25
20
15
10
5
0
101 102 103 104 102 103 104 103 104 105
Aging time (s) Aging time (s) Aging time (s)

■ Sigma phase precipitation phenomenon follows the Johnson-Mehl type of kinetic eq

uation in the case of weld metals of austenitic stainless steels.⇒

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Kinetics of Sigma Phase Precipitation
Osaka University
---Johnson-Mehl equation---
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5
NAS64 0.5 SAF2507 DP3W
Aging temperature
0.5
Logln1/(1-y)

1073K
0
0 1123K
1173K
1223K -0.5 0
-0.5 n=1.32
-1.0 -0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5 n=1.62 -1.0
-2.0 n=0.879
SAF2507 base metal DP3W base metal
NAS64 base metal
-2.0 -2.5 -1.5
101 102 103 104 101 102 103 104 102 103 104 105
Aging time (s) Aging time (s) Aging time (s)

nn 11
y = 1 – exp (– k t ) log
log ln
ln == nn log
log tt ++ log
log kk
11 –– yy
■ A good linear relationship is found between the aging time and the fraction precipitate
d, which indicates that the sigma phase precipitation in duplex stainless steels also follow
s the Johnson-Mehl type kinetic equation. ⇒
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Prediction of the Amount of Sigma Phase durin
g thermal cycle process by additivity rule
Osaka University
Based on the isothermal ■ Applying the additiv
kinetics of the sigma phase ity rule and assuming
precipitation
that the saturated vol
T1 T3 ume fraction of the si
gma phase and the ra
T2 te constant k vary wit
T2 h temperature, we ca
T3 n calculate the amou
T1 nt of sigma phase pre
cipitated during an ar
bitrary thermal cycle
Δt1 Δt2 Δt3 Δt1 Δt2 Δt3 with this equation.
time
time
f(t) = fmax(t){1-exp(k(t)Δt n)}
F = fmax(1){1-exp(k(1)Δt n)} F = ∫ fdt = ∫ f sat {1− exp(−ktn )}dt
　 + fmax (2){1-exp(k(2)Δt n)} k = k0 exp(−Q RT )
Additivity
rule 　 + fmax (3){1-exp(k(3)Δt n)}
　 + ・・・
F ： Saturated volume of precipitation Lab. Material Joining Process
 The amount of sigma phase precipitated in SAF2507
during two types of synthetic thermal cycles
Osaka University

Pattern A Pattern B
Area fraction of σphase (%)

6 ■ The calculated curves agree fairl

SAF2507 base metal y well with the measured results in
5 both of the thermal cycles.
●,▲: Measured
4
■ This correspondence suggests t
3 hat sigma phase precipitation in d
uplex stainless steels during the th
2 Pattern B ermal cycle process can be predic
ted by this computation.
1 Pattern A

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of thermal cycles Lab. Material Joining Process
 Relationship between the amount of sigma phase and t
he Charpy impact energy of duplex stainless steels age
Osaka University d at 1173K

80
Impact absorbed energy (J)

Aging temperature : 1173K

70 NAS64
60 SAF2507
DP3W
50
40
30
20 ■ In each steel, the Charpy imp
act energy decreases drasticall
10 y with increases in the amount
of sigma phase.⇒
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Area fraction of σ phase(%)

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Calculated amounts of the sigma phase and degree of e
mbrittlement due to sigma phase precipitation
Osaka University

(a) Area fraction of sigma phase in multipass weldment (Under the assumption)

(b) Decrement in impact absorbed energy in multipass weldment (Under the assumption)

■ The most embrittled zone locates in HAZ parallel to the weld interface and the level of t
he Charpy impact energy in this region is reduced by at most 17J from that of the unaged
base metal.⇒ Lab. Material Joining Process
 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Reasons for this enhancement of hot cracking
susceptibility in laser welds
Osaka University

Generally speaking, decreasing the welding heat input is one of the most ef
fective countermeasures for preventing hot cracking.

From this reason, laser welding is a preferable safeguard against this

problem, because it can provide a lower welding heat input.

However, hot cracking susceptibility may be enhanced in some cases of the laser
welding of stainless steels and nickel base alloys.

There are two reasons for this enhancement:

■ Due to a characteristic shape of penetration in laser welds ; 'the key hole

type of penetration.
■ Due to the rapid solidification and cooling that takes place during welding
with an extremely low heat input.
 Types and positions of hot cracking in laser welds
Osaka University
Ｈ ot cracking susceptibility may be enhanced
in laser welding

due to a characteristic shape of p

enetration in laser welds.

Center-line crack

Solidification
crack at neck

Inter-granular
crack at well
Hole by
■ In the case of the key hole type of penetration shrinking during
of laser welds, various types of cracking may be e solidification at Liquation crack
xperienced. bead center at neck in HAZ
■ These types of cracking is caused by the strain
concentration at the specific part in the welds or
in HAZ ⇒ Lab. Material Joining Process
 Ｈ ot cracking susceptibility may be enhanced
Mechanism of in laser welding
solidification cracking
Osaka University due to the rapid solidification and
Solidification cooling during welding .
(the second reason)
brittleness ■ In general, solidification cra
temperature cking will develop under the
range (BTR) Local strain condition that the thermal str
ain subjected to the welds ex
ceeds more than the critical v
Strain

alue that it can bear. That is,

(Cracking) solidification cracking will oc
cur when the strain curve dur
ing cooling intersect with the
solidification brittleness temp
(No cracking) erature range ; BTR
TL TS
Temperature ■ In laser welding with a low
heat input, the strain rate dur
ónê⁄ ã‡ëÆ ing cooling will increase, and
Crack consequently may enhance t
he hot cracking susceptibilit
Weld metal
y.
 Relationship between laser traveling velocity and total
crack length in laser welds (SUS316L (P+S:0.04%))
Osaka University

60μm 60μm

■ Evidently, an increase in the laser traveling velocity produces a greater susceptibility to h

ot cracking in laser welds.
■ In addition, note that as the laser traveling velocity rises, the location where hot cracks oc
cur changes from the dendrite boundaries to the center line of the welds.
 Two major factors to influence hot cracking
susceptibility in laser welds
Osaka University

BTR

Theoretical
Theoreticalanalyses
analyses Thermal
Thermal
of
ofthe
theliquidus
liquidus and
andss elastic-
Local strain elastic-
olidus
olidustemperatures
temperatures plastic
plastic
during
duringlaser
laserwelding
welding analysis
Strain analysis
(Cracking )

(No cracking)

TL TS
Temperature

■ The BTR in laser welds will vary because of changes in the liquidus and solidus temperatu
res due to the rapid solidification.

■ The strain rate in laser welds will also enhance due to rapid cooling.
 Estimation of BTR in laser surface melted region
Osaka University
Effect of rapid
Arc welding Laser welding
solidification

BTR

Strain(%)
Strain(%)

Strain(%)
BTR BTR

TL Ts TL TL’ Ts’Ts TL’ Ts’

Temperature Temperature Temperature

TL decreases due to supercooling Ts varied by micro-segregation of

impurity elements

■ Determined the BTR in laser welds by theoretical analyses of the liquidus and solidus temp
eratures based on the BTR for GTA welding obtained by the Varestraint test.
 Estimation of BTR in laser surface melted region
Osaka University
Effect of rapid
Arc welding Laser welding
solidification

BTR

Strain(%)
Strain(%)

Strain(%)
BTR BTR

TL Ts TL TL’ Ts’Ts TL’ Ts’

Temperature Temperature Temperature

TL decreases due to supercooling Ts varied by micro-segregation of

C
2
0
πCv
m
I
K
D
G
V
P
1
0
=
+
ξΓ
– impurity elements

modified KGT model

■ In order to estimate the liqudus temperature, we calculated the dendrite tip temperature (T
*), which corresponds to the liquidus temperature through calculation by the modified KGT mo
del.
 Estimation of BTR in laser surface melted region
Osaka University
Effect of rapid
Arc welding Laser welding
solidification

BTR

Strain(%)
Strain(%)

Strain(%)
BTR BTR

TL Ts TL TL’ Ts’Ts TL’ Ts’

Temperature Temperature Temperature
decreasesdue
TTLLdecreases dueto
tosupercooling
supercooling variedby
TTs svaried bymicro-segregation
micro-segregationof
of
impurityelements
impurity elements
■ To determine the solidus temperature, we have
conducted a theoretical analysis on the effect of S L Ci + 1 – Ci
the micro-segregation of impurity elements duri C j = k nesC j +1 Ji = D
Δx
ng welding on the solidus temperature by using t Thermo-Calc@
he data-base of Thermo-calc.
 Theoretical model for calculation for impurity elements
segregation in solidification process
Osaka University

Distribution of S S
L
at liquid/solid boundary
CjS = knesCj+1
L

Non-equilibrium co
efficient Knes
kes + β Δx
knes = β = Rv
1+ β 2DS Cs
kes ： Equilibrium coefficient ， Rv ： Solidification speed ，
Ds ： Diffusion coefficient
Diffusion in solid
Ci + 1 – Ci
Ji = D
Δx
2DsΔt B B B B
ΔCi = i C
{ ( i+1 − C i ) − ( i − 1) C
( i − C i −1)}
Δx 2 ( 2i +1)

■ In this analysis,assumed the morphology of a dendrite to be a hexagonal column and evaluated

distribution of the solute concentration with a one-dimensional diffusion model in which the solute diffused
in the direction perpendicular to the grain boundary⇒
 BTR calculated in laser welds of SUS316L
Osaka University
1.0 1.0
LTV (mm/s) LTV (mm/s)
20 20
0.8 40 0.8 40
60 60
Strain (%)

Strain (%)
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
P : 0.02% P : 0.03%
0 0
1680 1640 1600 1560 1520 1680 1640 1600 1560 1520
Temperature (K) Temperature (K)

■ The solidus temperature in the laser welds is found enhanced with a rise in the laser tra
veling velocity due to the increase in the solidification rate.
■ On the other hand, the liqudus temperature in the laser welds decrease due to superco
oling in laser welds⇒
 Direction of the the strain analyzed at the surface
of the welds
Osaka University
Laser traveling velocity : Increase

Analysis point and direction

θ =50° θ=60°
θ=35°

Calculated by Quick Therm 20mm/s 40mm/s 60mm/s

■ The thermal strain is another important factor to consider the occurrence of cracking in w
elds

■ Used the 3-dimensional thermal elastic-plastic software package "Quick Therm" to calcula
te the strain formed during welding in laser welds and analysed the strain which is perpendi
cular not only to the center line of the weld but also dendrite boundaries.

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Local strain at the center perpendicular to laser
scanning direction
Osaka University
LTV : Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)
1.2 1.2
Center-line LTV=60 Dendrite boundary
1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8 LTV=60

Strain (%)

Strain (%)
(θ=60°)
θ
0.6 LTV=40 0.6

0.4 0.4 LTV=40

(θ=50°)
0.2 LTV=20 0.2 LTV=20
(θ=35°)
0 0
1650 1600 1550 1650 1600 1550
Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
■ Examples of calculation which show that the change in the thermal strain occurr
ing during solidification increases with increasing laser traveling velocities. ■ In co
ntrast, in the case of dendrite boundaries, the strain taking place with a laser travel
ing velocity of 40mm/s is larger than that under other conditions.⇒
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Comparison between BTR and strain at the bead center
perpendicular to laser traveling direction
Osaka University
1.2
LTV = 20 mm/s LTV = 40 mm/s LTV = 60 mm/s
1
Strain (%)

0.8

0.6

0.4
Cracking
0.2 Cracking

0
1650 1600 1550 1650 1600 1550 1650 1600 1550
0.02 ％ P+S Temperature (K) SUS316L
0.04 ％ LTV : Laser traveling velocity
P+S

■ Examine the possibility of solidification cracking in laser welds by superimposing plots of the BTR
and the strain produced during cooling in laser welds.
■When the laser traveling velocity is 40 or 60mm/s, the strain perpendicular to the center line of the
welds crosses to the BTR, which means that solidification cracks will occur at the center of the welds
in this laser traveling velocity range.
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Comparison between BTR and strain perpendicular to
dendrite growth direction at dendrite boundaries
Osaka University

1.2
LTV = 20 mm/s LTV = 40 mm/s LTV = 60 mm/s
1
Strain (%)

0.8

0.6

0.4
Cracking
0.2

0
1650 1600 1550 1650 1600 1550 1650 1600 1550
0.02 ％ P+S Temperature (K) SUS316L
0.04 ％
LTV : Laser traveling velocity
P+S

■ The strain curve estimated for dendrite boundaries crosses the BTR when the laser trav
eling velocity equals 40mm/s.
■ This result suggests that solidification cracks will occur at the dendrite boundaries in th
e welds in this laser traveling velocity range.⇒
 Comparison between measured and theoretically
calculated conditions to occur cracking
Osaka University

Cracking at dendrite boundary (Calculated) Center-line cracking (Calculated)

P+S content (mass ％ )

0.04
Crack
（ Center-line ）
0.03
Crack
(Dendrite
boundary)
0.02
No crack

SUS316L
10 20 30 40 50 60
Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)
■ Good agreement between these two conditions determined by calculation and experiment
ls.
■ These results suggest that the cause of solidification cracking in laser welds is actually the
ncrease in the strain rate during solidification, in spite of the fact that the BTR becomes narrow
er due to rapid solidification.
 Enhanced susceptibility due to solidification mode shift
Osaka University

J.C.Lippold, Weld. J., 73-6 (1994) 129s-139s

1000
Solidification rate (mm/s)

Austenite

S+P+B (mass%)
0.1
100 (A) F/MA Arc welding YAG welding
Ferrite
10 (F) Crack No crack
0.05

AF FA
0.1 0
1.5 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.8
Creq/Nieq Cr/Ni-equivalent

■ There is another factor to be considered which may influence hot cracking suscepti
bility in austenitic stainless steels in laser welding.
■ It is known that the solidification mode in austenitic stainless steel weld metals shift
s from primarily ferrite to primarily austenite when the solidification rate becomes suff
iciently high.
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Enhanced susceptibility due to solidification mode shift
Osaka University

J.C.Lippold, Weld. J., 73-6 (1994) 129s-139s

1000
Solidification rate (mm/s)

Austenite

S+P+B (mass%)
0.1
100 (A) F/MA Arc welding YAG welding
Ferrite
10 (F) Crack No crack
0.05

AF FA
0.1 0
1.5 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.8
Creq/Nieq Cr/Ni-equivalent

■ Laser welding with a low heat input can provide in some cases such solidification c
ondition to cause solidification mode shift.
■ Alloys solidified in primarily austenite mode is more sensitive than ones in primarily f
errite mode.
■ This is another reason for the increased hot cracking susceptibility of stainless steel
s in laser welding. ⇒
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Condition for transition of solidification mode
Osaka University

In the case of T*δ>T*γ In the case of T*γ>T*δ

FA mode * *
AF mode
T = T + Σ ( m C – m C )
L v ,i i 0 . i 0 ,i

– 2 Γ / R – V / μ – GD / V

■ In general, the phase which has the higher dendrite tip temperature is more likely to be
the primary phase on solidification. Therefore the solidification mode shift can be predict
ed if the dendrite tip temperature of each phase is known.
 Theoretical model for dendrite growth
Osaka University

Δ T = m C – C +
2 Γ (modified KGT model)
0 1
R
S.Fukumoto, W.Kurz, ISIJ Inter., 37-7 (1997) 677-684
ξP
C
2
0
Cv
m
I
K
D
G
V
1
0
=
+
π
Γ
– S.Fukumoto, W.Kurz, ISIJ Inter., 38-1 (1998) 71-77

K ： Partition coefficient
R ： Dendrite tip radius
Γ V ： Dendrite growth velocity
R = 2 π ΔT ： Undercooling related to the tip radius
m C 1 – K ξ c V
0
G ： Temperature gradient
– – G
D 1 – 1 – K Iv P
D ： Liquid interdiffusion coefficient
P ： Peclet number
Iv(P) ： Ivantsov's solution
Dendrite Tip Temperature ： T* ξc ： Absolute stability coefficient
T
*
= T + Σ ( m C
*
– m C )
mv,i ： Velocity dependent liquidus slope
L v ,i i 0 . i 0 ,i
Γ ： Gibbs-Thomson parameter
– 2 Γ / R – V / μ – GD / V

■ Used the modified Kurz-Giovanola-Trivedi (KGT) model, which was extended to multico
mponent alloys by Kurz in order to calculate the dendrite tip temperature.
■ According to the model, the dendrite tip radius, R, is expressed as a function of dendrite
growth velocity, V, as shown in this equation .
■ For multicomponent alloys, the dendrite tip temperature, T*, is given by this equation. ⇒

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Effect of dendrite growth velocity on dendrite tip
temperature of ferrite and austenite
Osaka University

1750
Dendrite tip temperature (K)

1730

1710

1690
■ The dendrite tip temperature in
austenite rises above that in
1670 ferrite at dendrite growth
velocities exceeding 0.9mm/s. ⇒

1650
1×10-2 1×10-1 1×100 1×101 1×102
Dendrite growth velocity (mm/s)

23Cr-9Ni-0.34N steel
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Comparison of calculated solidification mode change with
experimental results in laser welds of stainless steel
Osaka University

AF mode
FA mode ■ By using the above mentioned
15
Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)

Bead center results, you can also predict the r

isk of hot cracking by calculation
assuming that the solidification
AF FA mode change from FA to AF will
10 enhance cracking susceptibility.

■ For instance, this figures show t

he theoretically predicted transiti
5 on line from FA to AF at the cent
er part of the weld metals for nitr
ogen containing austenitic stainl
Predicted condition
to yield crack ess steels.⇒

0
1.3 1.4 1.5
Creq/Nieq

23Cr-9Ni-0.34N steel
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Comparison of calculated solidification mode change
with hot cracking susceptibility in laser welds of
Osaka University stainless steel

Crack
No crack
15
Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)

Bead center

AF FA
10 ■ The condition to yield AF mode co
incide with the condition to occur h
ot cracking.

■ It means you can predict the risk o

5 f hot cracking through calculation of
the mode shift from FA to AF even in
Predicted condition laser weld. ⇒
to yield crack

0
1.3 1.4 1.5
Creq/Nieq
23Cr-9Ni-0.34N steel
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Mechanism of ductility-dip crack
Osaka University

Ductility curve ■ Ductility-dip cracking can o

ccur in various alloys which ex
hibit a loss of ductility below t
BTR DTR he solidus temperature, when
Strain

they are subjected to a strain

sufficient to produce cracking
ε3 during cooling in welding.
ε2 ■ A ductility-dip crack formed
in weld metals is normally very
ε1 small, and is sometimes called
a 'micro fissuring'. ⇒

Ductility-dip cracking

Temperature
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Mechanism of ductility-dip crack
Osaka University

■ Recently Invar alloy has attr

acted special interest as a suit
able material for cryogenic ap
Ductility curve plications, such as fuel transp
ort pipes due to its low therm
BTR DTR al expansion coefficient and g
Strain

ood toughness at low tempera

tures.
ε3
■ Invar alloy is however, found
ε2 to be very susceptible to micr
o fissuring in multi-pass welds
ε1 of heavy sectioned pipes.
But, the mechanism of micro f
issuring in the weld metals of I
Ductility-dip cracking nvar alloys is still uncertain. ⇒

Temperature
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Surface of weld metal of Invar alloy after triple bead lon
gitudinal Varestraint
Osaka University

■ Many cracks in original weld pa

ss which was reheated by a subse
quent pass. Cracks preferentially
occurred along the columnar grai
ns and/or around the center line
of the original weld bead.

Fe-36Ni alloy
 Effect of weld thermal cycles on cracking susceptibility
Osaka University
3
Total crack length (mm)

Double-bead
Triple-bead
2

0
1100 1000 900 900
〜 〜 〜 〜
1200 1100 1000 800
Peak temperature range in HAZ (K)

Fe-36Ni alloy (0.011%S)

■ The total lengths of the cracks in the triple-bead test were much greater than those in th
e double-bead test. We can see that this tendency predominated in the peak temperature
range between 1000K and 1100K.

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Effect of S on susceptibility to ductility-dip cracking
Osaka University

Double-bead Varestraint test

Ductility-dip crack in first bead
80
Augmented strain 1.6%
Total crack length (mm)

2.4%
60

■ The total length of the cracks grew a

40 s the sulfur content in the samples inc
reased.

■ This experimental result demonstrat

20 e that sulfur is evidently detrimental to
cracking susceptibility in the weld met
Fe-36Ni alloy al.

0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015
S content (%)

Lab. Material Joining Process

 The result of Auger analysis conducted on the fractured
surface in the multi-pass weld metal
Osaka University
Fe-36Ni alloy
800
600 AES spectrum
400
200
0
C O
c/s

-200
-400
-600
-800 S Ni
-1000
-1200
Fe
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Kinetic energy (eV)

Effect of thermal cycles at peak temperature of 1000K on S concentration

Twice ： Average 7% 　⇨　 Three times ： Average 9%

■Sulfur is segregated on its surface. Moreover, the amount of sulfur on the grain boundary increase with
increase of welding pass. ⇒
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Method of calculation for S segregation at grain
boundary during multi-pass weld thermal cycles
Osaka University

Stage I : Solidification process

Melting point

Stage II : Cooling process (after solidification)

■ The concentration of sulfur at the grain boundary was a Melting point

nalyzed for two stages:
■ That is,

Stage I: the solidification segregation during welding,

Stage II: the grain boundary segregation during the c
ooling and reheating by the subsequent weld passes.

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Method of calculation for S segregation at grain
boundary during multi-pass weld thermal cycles
Osaka University

Stage I : Solidification process

Distribution of S at liquid/solid boundary
S L kes + β Δx Melting point
C =k C
j nes j+1 knes = β = Rv
1+ β 2DS
es ： Equilibrium coefficient ， Rv ： Solidification speed ，
s ： Diffusion coefficient

Melting point

■ The same model as the one described in the pr

evious section was adopted for the solidification
segregation during welding. thus, the concentrati
on of sulfur after completion of solidification was
calculated by this equation.

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Method of calculation for S segregation at grain
boundary during multi-pass weld thermal cycles
Osaka University

■ As for the grain boundary segregation during the cooling

and reheating by subsequent weld passes, we calculated t
Melting point
he change in the sulfur concentration at the grain boundar
y after solidification by the these equations based on the e
quilibrium segregation theory.

Stage II : Cooling process (after solidification)

Solute concentration change
2DX Δt B B B B
ΔCX = i C
{ ( X i+1 − C Xi ) − ( i − 1 C
)( X i − C X i −1)} Melting point
Δx 2 ( 2i − 1)
Boundary condition
Csgb(Δt)− Csgb (0) ⎛4DsΔt ⎞ ⎛2 DsΔt ⎞
gb gb
= 1− exp ⎜ 2 2 ⎟erfc ⎜ ⎟
Cs (∞)− Cs (0) ⎝ α1 d ⎠ ⎝ α1 d ⎠
C ： Concentration of solute, vacancy, complex ，
k ： constant ， Ev ： Vacancy forming energy ，
Ec ： Binding energy between vacancy and solute
Lab. Material Joining Process
 The concentration of S at grain boundaries calculated
for multi-pass weld thermal cycles
Osaka University

■ In the solidification process, the sulfur concentration in the liquid phase rose as the soli
dification proceeded.
■ During cooling, the sulfur concentration at the grain boundaries first rapidly fell, and the
n increased again with correspondent to the increase of its equilibrium concentration at t
he grain boundaries.
 The concentration of S at grain boundaries calculated
for multi-pass weld thermal cycles
Osaka University

■ In the reheating process, the grain boundary sulfur concentrations decreased at temperature
s above about 1100 K, due to the reduced equilibrium concentration.
■ However, in the reheating process in which the peak temperature was less than 1000 K, the
grain boundary concentration of sulfur increased again with elevations in its equilibrium conce
ntrations.
 Mechanism of ductility-dip cracking in multi-pass weld
thermal cycles
Osaka University

■ The theoretical analysis makes it clear;

1) the sulfur segregation at the grain boundary
in multi-pass welds was enhanced by multi-
pass weld thermal cycles
2) became dominant when a weld metal was
reheated twice at a temperature range
between 900 and 1100 K.

Varestraint test results have shown that this region was t

he most susceptible to cracking.

1st pass 2nd pass 3rd pass

Grain boundary

Grain boundary
segregation of sulfur
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Mechanism of ductility-dip cracking in multi-pass weld
thermal cycles
Osaka University

1st
■ These results suggest that
the cause of cracking in the
2nd multi-pass welds of Inver all
oy can be attributed to decr
Strain

Ductility ease in the critical strain of

BTR DTR curve
DTR caused by grain bound
3rd ary weakening due to sulfur
segregation
Strain ■ which has been accelerat
curve ed by the multi-pass weld t
hermal cycles.
Ductility-dip cracking

Temperature
1st 2nd 3rd
Grain boundary

Grain boundary
segregation of sulfur
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Contents
Osaka University

1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
　　■ 475 ℃ Embrittlement
　　■ Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
　　■ Solidification Cracking in Laser Weldin
g
　　■ Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary

Lab. Material Joining Process

 Summary
Osaka University

Better
Better
Calculation codes
performance
performance
Development of joint
of joint

■Quantitative prediction of microstructure and properties

■Precise understanding of mechanism
■ In the last few decade,mathematical approaches using computer technologies in the wel
ding metallurgy have significantly contributed to its recent developments. Such approaches
have enabled a more precise understanding of welding metallurgical phenomena and a mo
re accurate comprehension of the mechanism for weld defects, including weld cracking thr
ough a visualization of the results.
■ Moreover, mathematical approaches have provided important information to control wel
d defects, which ensures better weldment performance and the reliability of welded joints.
Further development of mathematical modeling should be more encouraged.
Osaka University

Thank you for kind your attention!

Lab. Material Joining Process

 The method for examination of reheat cracking
susceptibility
Osaka University
2-bead Varestraint test 3-bead Varestraint test

1st bead
2nd bead 3rd bead

2nd bead
1st bead

　　　　＜ Test conditions ＞

Welding current ： 150A
Welding voltage ： 13V
Welding speed ： 1.67mm/s
Augmented strain ： 1.6, 2.4, 3.6%
Lab. Material Joining Process
 Surface appearance of laser surface melted regions
Osaka University

1mm 1mm

60μ 60μm
m Lab. Material Joining Process
 Local strain at the center perpendicular to
Osaka University laser scanning direction
LTV : Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)
1.2
LTV=60
1
0.8

Lser scanning direction

Strain ( ％ )
0.6 LTV=40

0.4
0.2 LTV=20
Center element
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1690 1650 1610 1570 1530
Temperature
Temperature (K) (K)

The increment of local strain at the center part in

laser surface melted region during solidification
increases with increasing laser traveling velocities.
Melted region Lab. of Material Joining Process
 Local strain at dendrite boundaries perpendicular
Osaka University to dendrite growth direction

Laser scanning direction

Perpendicular
to dendrite
growth direction
θ θ θ

Laser traveling velocity : Increase

Element located at
0.3mm from center
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Melted region Lab. of Material Joining Process

 Local strain at dendrite boundaries perpendicular
Osaka University to dendrite growth direction (Calculated)
1.2
LTV : Laser traveling velocity (mm/s) Laser traveling velocity : Increase
1
Strain ( ％ )

0.8
LTV=40
0.6
θ θ
0.4 LTV=20 θ

0.2 LTV=60

0
1690 1650 1610 1570 1530
Temperature (K)
Temperature (K)

The increment of local strain in the condition of laser traveling velocity of 40mm/s is larger than the
strain in other conditions. That is, in this case, not only the laser traveling velocity but also the dendrite
growth direction affects the local strain at dendrite boundaries.
Lab. of Material Joining Process