Lesson 1 - Basics of Arc Welding

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Lesson 1 Current
The Basics of Arc Chapter
Welding Table of
Contents
Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding
Processes
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes
BASIC Go To Test
for Welding
Mild Steels WELDING FILLER METAL Print
Lesson 4
TECHNOLOGY Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels
A Correspondence Course
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals
for Stainless Steels
Turn Pages
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy LESSON I
Steel Filler Metals -
GMAW,GTAW,SAW THE BASICS OF ARC WELDING
Lesson 7
! An Introduction to Metals
Flux Cored Arc ! Electricity for Welding
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels Search
Chapter
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Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes
ESAB Welding &
ESAB Cutting Products
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Estimating &
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs
Lesson 10
Reliability of Welding
Filler Metals
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Lesson 1 - Basics of Arc Welding https://www.esabna.com/euweb/awtc/lesson1_2.htm
Lesson 1 Current
Welding Table of
Contents
Lesson 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Common Electric
Arc Welding
LESSON I
Processes THE BASICS OF ARC WELDING
Go To Test
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Print
PART A. AN INTRODUCTION TO METALS
Mild Steels
Section Nr. Section Title Page
Lesson 4 1.1 Source and Manufacturing............................................................. 1

Glossary
Covered Electrodes 1.1.1 Rimmed Steel ................................................................................... 2
for Welding Low
1.1.2 Capped Steel .................................................................................... 2
Alloy Steels
1.1.3 Killed Steel ........................................................................................ 3
1.1.4 Semi-Killed Steel............................................................................... 3
Lesson 5
1.1.5 Vacuum Deoxidized Steel ................................................................. 3
for Stainless Steels 1.2 Classification of Steels................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Carbon Steel ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Low Alloy Steel.................................................................................. 3 Turn Pages
Lesson 6 1.2.3 High Alloy Steel ................................................................................. 4
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.3 Specifications ................................................................................. 5
GMAW,GTAW,SAW 1.4 Crystalline Structure of Metals ...................................................... 6
1.4.1 Grains and Grain Boundaries ........................................................... 7
Lesson 7 1.5 Heat Treatment ................................................................................ 8
Flux Cored Arc 1.5.1 Preheat ............................................................................................. 8
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels 1.5.2 Stress Relieving ................................................................................ 9 Search
1.5.3 Hardening ......................................................................................... 9 Chapter
(Faster
1.5.4 Tempering ......................................................................................... 9
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Lesson 8 1.5.5 Annealing .......................................................................................... 9
Hardsurfacing
1.5.6 Normalizing ....................................................................................... 10
Electrodes
1.5.7 Heat Treatment Trade-Off ................................................................. 10 Search
1.6 Properties of Metals........................................................................ Document
10
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Lesson 9 1.6.1 Tensile Strength ................................................................................ 10 Download)
Estimating &
1.6.2 Yield Strength.................................................................................... 11
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs 1.6.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength .................................................................. 11
1.6.4 Percentage of Elongation ................................................................. 11
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Lesson 1 Current
Welding Table of
TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents
LESSON I - Con't.
Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding Section Nr. Section Title Page
Processes
1.6.5 Reduction of Area ............................................................................. 11 Go To Test

Lesson 3
1.6.6 Charpy Impacts ................................................................................. 11
Covered Electrodes
for Welding 1.6.7 Fatigue Strength ............................................................................... 12 Print
Mild Steels 1.6.8 Creep Strength.................................................................................. 13
1.6.9 Oxidation Resistance ........................................................................ 13
Lesson 4 1.6.10 Hardness Test ................................................................................... 13
Glossary
Covered Electrodes 1.6.11 Coefficient of Expansion ................................................................... 14
for Welding Low
1.6.12 Thermal Conductivity ........................................................................ 14
Alloy Steels
1.7 Effects of Alloying Elements .......................................................... 14
1.7.1 Carbon .............................................................................................. 14
Lesson 5
1.7.2 Sulphur ............................................................................................. 14
for Stainless Steels 1.7.3 Manganese ....................................................................................... 15
1.7.4 Chromium ......................................................................................... 15
1.7.5 Nickel ................................................................................................ 15 Turn Pages
Lesson 6 1.7.6 Molybdenum ..................................................................................... 15
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.7.7 Silicon ............................................................................................... 15
GMAW,GTAW,SAW 1.7.8 Phosphorus....................................................................................... 15
1.7.9 Aluminum .......................................................................................... 15
Lesson 7 1.7.10 Copper .............................................................................................. 15
Flux Cored Arc 1.7.11 Columbium........................................................................................ 16
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels 1.7.12 Tungsten ........................................................................................... 16 Search
1.7.13 Vanadium .......................................................................................... 16 Chapter
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1.7.14 Nitrogen ............................................................................................ 16
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Lesson 8 1.7.15 Alloying Elements summary ............................................................. 16
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes
PART B. ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING Search
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Section Nr. Section Title Page
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Estimating & 1.8 Electricity for Welding ....................................................................... 17
Comparing Weld 1.8.1 Principles of Electricity ...................................................................... 17
Metal Costs 1.8.2 Ohm’s Law ........................................................................................ 18
1.8.3 Electrical Power ................................................................................ 19
1.8.4 Power Generation ............................................................................. 20
Lesson 10
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Lesson 1 Current
Welding Table of
TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents
LESSON I - Con't.
Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding Section Nr. Section Title Page
Processes
1.8.5 Transformers .................................................................................... 22 Go To Test

Lesson 3
1.8.6 Power Requirements ........................................................................ 24
Covered Electrodes
for Welding 1.8.7 Rectifying AC to DC .......................................................................... 25 Print
Mild Steels 1.9 Constant Current or Constant Voltage .............................................. 26
1.9.1 Constant Current Characteristics ...................................................... 26
Lesson 4 1.9.2 Constant Voltage Characteristics ...................................................... 26
Glossary
Covered Electrodes 1.9.3 Types of Welding Power Sources ..................................................... 27
for Welding Low
1.9.4 Power Source Controls ..................................................................... 28
Alloy Steels
Appendix A Glossary of Terms ............................................................................. 29

Lesson 5
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Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon
Chapter
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Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes
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Estimating &
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Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

Welding Table of
Contents
AN INTRODUCTION TO METALS
Lesson 2
Common Electric 1.1 SOURCE AND MANUFACTURING
Arc Welding
Processes
Metals come from natural deposits of ore in the earth’s crust. Most ores are contaminated
with impurities that must be removed by mechanical and chemical means. Metal extracted Go To Test
Lesson 3
from the purified ore is known as primary or virgin metal, and metal that comes from scrap
Covered Electrodes
for Welding is called secondary metal. Most mining of metal bearing ores is done by either open pit or Print
Mild Steels underground methods. The two methods of mining employed are known as “selective” in
which small veins or beds of high grade ore are worked, and “bulk” in which large quantities
Lesson 4 of low grade ore are mined to extract a high grade portion.
Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low 1.1.0.1 There are two types of ores, ferrous and nonferrous. The term ferrous comes
Alloy Steels
from the Latin word “ferrum” meaning iron, and a ferrous metal is one that has a high iron
content. Nonferrous metals, such as copper and aluminum, are those that contain little or
Lesson 5 no iron. There is approximately 20 times the tonnage of iron in the earth’s crust compared
to all other nonferrous products combined; therefore, it is the most important and widely
used metal.
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1.1.0.2 Aluminum, because of its attractive appearance, light weight and strength, is the
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy next most widely used metal. Commercial aluminum ore, known as bauxite, is a residual
Steel Filler Metals - deposit formed at or near the earth’s surface.
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
1.1.0.3 Some of the chemical processes that occur during steel making are repeated
Lesson 7 during the welding operation and an understanding of welding metallurgy can be gained by
Flux Cored Arc imagining the welding arc as a miniature steel mill.
Electrodes Carbon
1.1.0.4 The largest percentage of commercially produced iron comes from the blast Chapter
furnace process. A typical blast furnace is a circular shaft approximately 90 to 100 feet in (Faster
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Lesson 8 height with an internal diameter of approximately 28 feet. The steel shell of the furnace is
Hardsurfacing lined with a refractory material, usually a hard, dense clay firebrick.
Electrodes
Search
1.1.0.5 The iron blast furnace utilizes the chemical reaction between a solid fuel charge
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and the resulting rising column of gas in the furnace. The three different materials used for (Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating & the charge are ore, flux and coke. The ore consists of iron oxide about four inches in
Comparing Weld diameter. The flux is limestone that decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
Metal Costs The lime reacts with impurities in the ore and floats them to the surface in the form of a
slag. Coke, which is primarily carbon, is the ideal fuel for blast furnaces because it
produces carbon monoxide gas, the main agent for reducing iron ore into iron metal.
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
1.1.0.6 The basic operation of the blast furnace is to reduce iron oxide to iron metal and Contents
to remove impurities from the metal. Reduced elements pass into the iron and oxidized
Lesson 2 elements dissolve into the slag. The metal that comes from the blast furnace is called pig
Common Electric
iron and is used as a starting material for further purification processes.
Arc Welding
Processes
1.1.0.7 Pig iron contains excessive amounts of elements that must be reduced before
steel can be produced. Different types of furnaces, most notably the open hearth, electric Go To Test
Lesson 3
and basic oxygen, are used to continue this refining process. Each furnace performs the
Covered Electrodes
for Welding task of removing or reducing elements such as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and Print
Mild Steels nitrogen by saturating the molten metal with oxygen and slag forming ingredients. The
oxygen reduces elements by forming gases that are blown away and the slag attracts
Lesson 4 impurities as it separates from the molten metal. Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low 1.1.0.8 Depending upon the type of slag that is used, refining furnaces are classed as
Alloy Steels
either acid or basic. Large amounts of lime are contained in basic slags and high quantities
of silica are present in acid slags. This differential between acid and basic slags is also
Lesson 5 present in welding electrodes for much of the same refining process occurs in the welding
operation.
1.1.0.9 After passing through the refining furnace, the metal is poured into cast iron ingot
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molds. The ingot produced is a rather large square column of steel. At this point, the metal
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy is saturated with oxygen. To avoid the formation of large gas pockets in the cast metal, a
Steel Filler Metals - substantial portion of the oxygen must be removed. This process is known as deoxidation,
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
and it is accomplished through additives that tie up the oxygen either through gases or in
slag. There are various degrees of oxidation, and the common ingots resulting from each
Lesson 7
are as follows:
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon
1.1.1 Rimmed Steel - The making of rimmed steels involves the least deoxidation. As Search
Low Alloy Steels
the ingots solidify, a layer of nearly pure iron is formed on the walls and bottom of the mold, Chapter
(Faster
and practically all the carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur segregate to the central core. The Download)
Lesson 8 oxygen forms carbon monoxide gas and it is trapped in the solidifying metal as blow holes
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes that disappear in the hot rolling process. The chief advantage of rimmed steel is the excel-
lent defect-free surface that can be produced with the aide of the pure iron skin. Most Search
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rimmed steels are low carbon steels containing less than .1% carbon.
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Estimating & 1.1.2 Capped Steel - Capped steel regulates the amount of oxygen in the molten
Comparing Weld
metal through the use of a heavy cap that is locked on top of the mold after the metal is
Metal Costs
allowed to reach a slight level of rimming. Capped steels contain a more uniform core
composition than the rimmed steels. Capped steels are, therefore, used in applications
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
that require excellent surfaces, a more homogenous composition, and better mechanical Contents
properties than rimmed steel.
Lesson 2
Common Electric 1.1.3 Killed Steel - Unlike rimmed or capped steel, killed steel is made by completely
Arc Welding
removing or tying up the oxygen before the ingot solidifies to prevent the rimming action.
Processes
This removal is accomplished by adding a ferro-silicon alloy that combines with oxygen to
form a slag, leaving a dense and homogenous metal. Go To Test
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes 1.1.4 Semi-killed Steel - Semi-killed steel is a compromise between rimmed and killed
for Welding Print
Mild Steels steel. A small amount of deoxidizing agent, generally ferro-silicon or aluminum, is added.
The amount is just sufficient to kill any rimming action, leaving some dissolved oxygen.
Lesson 4 1.1.5 Vacuum Deoxidized Steel - The object of vacuum deoxidation is to remove Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low oxygen from the molten steel without adding an element that forms nonmetallic inclusions.
Alloy Steels This is done by increasing the carbon content of the steel and then subjecting the molten
metal to vacuum pouring or steam degassing. The carbon reacts with the oxygen to form
Lesson 5 carbon monoxide, and as a result, the carbon and oxygen levels fall within specified limits.
Welding Filler Metals Because no deoxidizing elements that form solid oxides are used, the steel produced by
this process is quite clean.
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Lesson 6 1.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF STEEL
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - The three commonly used classifications for steel are: carbon, low alloy, and high alloy.
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
These are referred to as the “type” of steel.
Lesson 7 1.2.1 Carbon Steel - Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon, and it attains its
Flux Cored Arc strength and hardness levels primarily through the addition of carbon. Carbon steels are
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels classed into four groups, depending on their carbon levels. Search
Chapter
Low Carbon Up to 0.15% carbon (Faster
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Lesson 8 Mild Carbon Steels .15% to 0.29% carbon
Hardsurfacing Medium Carbon Steels .30% to 0.59% carbon
Electrodes
High Carbon Steels .60% to 1.70% carbon Search
Document
1.2.1.1 The largest tonnage of steel produced falls into the low and mild carbon steel (Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating & groups. They are popular because of their relative strength and ease with which they can
Comparing Weld
be welded.
Metal Costs
1.2.2 Low Alloy Steel - Low alloy steel, as the name implies, contains small amounts
Lesson 10 of alloying elements that produce remarkable improvements in their properties. Alloying
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
elements are added to improve strength and toughness, to decrease or increase the Contents
response to heat treatment, and to retard rusting and corrosion. Low alloy steel is gener-
Lesson 2 ally defined as having a 1.5% to 5% total alloy content. Common alloying elements are
Common Electric
manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium. Low alloy steels may
Arc Welding
Processes contain as many as four or five of these alloys in varying amounts.
1.2.2.1 Low alloy steels have higher tensile and yield strengths than mild steel or carbon Go To Test
Lesson 3
structural steel. Since they have high strength-to-weight ratios, they reduce dead weight in
Covered Electrodes
for Welding railroad cars, truck frames, heavy equipment, etc. Print
Mild Steels
1.2.2.2 Ordinary carbon steels, that exhibit brittleness at low temperatures, are unreliable
in critical applications. Therefore, low alloy steels with nickel additions are often used for
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes low temperature situations.
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels 1.2.2.3 Steels lose much of their strength at high temperatures. To provide for this loss
of strength at elevated temperatures, small amounts of chromium or molybdenum are
Lesson 5 added.
for Stainless Steels 1.2.3 High Alloy Steel - This group of expensive and specialized steels contain alloy
levels in excess of 10%, giving them outstanding properties.
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Lesson 6 1.2.3.1 Austenitic manganese steel contains high carbon and manganese levels, that
Carbon & Low Alloy give it two exceptional qualities, the ability to harden while undergoing cold work and great
GMAW,GTAW,SAW toughness. The term austenitic refers to the crystalline structure of these steels.
1.2.3.2 Stainless steels are high alloy steels that have the ability to resist corrosion. This
Lesson 7
characteristic is mainly due to the high chromium content, i.e., 10% or greater. Nickel is
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon also used in substantial quantities in some stainless steels.
1.2.3.3 Tool steels are used for cutting and forming operations. They are high quality Chapter
(Faster
steels used in making tools, punches, forming dies, extruding dies, forgings and so forth. Download)
Lesson 8 Depending upon their properties and usage, they are sometimes referred to as water
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes hardening, shock resisting, oil hardening, air hardening, and hot work tool steel.
Search
1.2.3.4 Because of the high levels of alloying elements, special care and practices are Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 required when welding high alloy steels.
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Estimating &
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Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
1.3 SPECIFICATIONS Contents
Lesson 2 Many steel producers have developed steels that they market under a trade name such as
Common Electric Cor-Ten, HY-80, T-1, NA-XTRA, or SS-100, but usually a type of steel is referred to by its
Arc Welding
specification. A variety of technical, governmental and industrial associations issue
Processes
specifications for the purpose of classifying materials by their chemical composition,
properties or usage. The specification agencies most closely related to the steel industry Go To Test
Lesson 3
are the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
Covered Electrodes
for Welding American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and the American Society of Print
Mild Steels Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
1.3.0.1 The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automobile
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes Engineers (SAE) have collaborated in providing identical numerical designations for their
for Welding Low specifications. The first two digits of a four digit index number refer to a series of steels
Alloy Steels
classified by their composition or alloy combination. While the last two digits, which can
change within the same series, give an approximate average of the carbon range. For
Lesson 5 example, the first two digits of a type 1010 or 1020 steel indicate a “10” series that has
carbon as its main alloy. The last two digits indicate an approximate average content of
.10% or .20% carbon, respectively. Likewise, the “41” of a 4130 type steel refers to a group
that has chromium and molybdenum as their main alloy combination with approximately Turn Pages
Lesson 6 .30% carbon content.
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.3.0.2 The AISI classifications for certain alloys, such as stainless steel, are somewhat
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
different. They follow a three digit classification with the first digit designating the main
alloy composition or series. The last two digits will change within a series, but are of an
Lesson 7 arbitrary nature being agreed upon by industry as a designation for certain compositions
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon within the series. For example, the “3” in a 300 series of stainless steel indicates chromium
Low Alloy Steels and nickel as the main alloys, but a 308 stainless has a different overall composition than a Search
Chapter
347 type. The “4” of a 400 series indicates the main alloy as chromium, but there are (Faster
different types such as 410, 420, 430, and so forth within the series. Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
1.3.0.3 The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is the largest
Electrodes
organization of its kind in the world. It has compiled some 48 volumes of standards for Search
Document
materials, specifications, testing methods and recommended practices for a variety of
(Slower
Lesson 9 materials ranging from textiles and plastics to concrete and metals. Download)
Estimating &
Comparing Weld
1.3.0.4 Two ASTM designated steels commonly specified for construction are A36-77
Metal Costs
and A242-79. The prefix letter indicates the class of a material. In this case, the letter “A”
indicates a ferrous metal, the class of widest interest in welding. The numbers 36 and 242
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
are index numbers. The 77 and 79 refer to the year that the standards for these steels Contents
were originally adopted or the date of their latest revision.
Lesson 2
Common Electric 1.3.0.5 The ASTM designation may be further subdivided into Grades or Classes. Since
Arc Welding many standards for ferrous metals are written to cover forms of steel (i.e., sheet, bar, plate,
Processes
etc.) or particular products fabricated from steel (i.e., steel rail, pipe, chain, etc.), the user
may select from a number of different types of steel under the same classification. The Go To Test
Lesson 3 different types are than placed under grades or classes as a way of indicating the
Covered Electrodes
for Welding differences in such things as chemistries, properties, heat treatment, etc. An example of a Print
Mild Steels full designation is A285-78 Grade A or A485-79 Class 70.
1.3.0.6 The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) maintains a widely used
Lesson 4 Glossary
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The material specification as adopted by the
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low ASME is identified with a prefix letter “S”, while the remainder is identical with ASTM with
Alloy Steels the exception that the date of adoption or revision by ASTM is not shown. Therefore, a
common example of an ASME classification is SA 387 Grade 11, Class 1.
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals 1.4 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS
When a liquid metal is cooled, its atoms will assemble into a regular crystal pattern and we
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Lesson 6 say the liquid has solidified or crystallized. All metals solidify as a crystalline material. In a
Carbon & Low Alloy crystal the atoms or molecules are held in a fixed position and are not free to move about
Steel Filler Metals - as are the molecules of a liquid or gas. This fixed position is called a crystal lattice. As the
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
temperature of a crystal is raised, more thermal energy is absorbed by the atoms or
molecules and their movement increases. As the distance
Lesson 7
4000 between the atoms increases, the lattice breaks down and
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon the crystal melts. If a lattice contains only one type of atom,
as in pure iron, the conditions are the same at all points
LIQUID Chapter
3000 throughout the lattice, and the crystal melts at a single (Faster
2795°F
temperature (see Figure 1). Download)
Lesson 8
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Electrodes 2000
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Estimating &
Comparing Weld
SOLID
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TIME
SOLID-LIQUID TRANSFORMATION, PURE IRON
Lesson 10 FIGURE 1
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Welding Table of
1.4.0.1 However, if the lattice contains two Contents
Liquid
or more types of atoms, as in any alloy-steel,
Lesson 2 it may start to melt at one temperature but not
Common Electric
be completely molten until it has been heated Liquid and Solid
Arc Welding
Processes to a higher temperature (See Figure 2). This
creates a situation where there is a
Go To Test
Lesson 3 combination of liquids and solids within a
Covered Electrodes range of temperatures.
for Welding Print
Solid
Mild Steels 1.4.0.2 Each metal has a characteristic
crystal structure that forms during
Lesson 4 solidification and often remains the permanent TIME Glossary
Covered Electrodes form of the material as long as it remains at Solid-Liquid Transformation, Alloy Metal
for Welding Low
room temperature. However, some metals FIGURE 2
Alloy Steels
may undergo an alteration in the crystalline
form as the temperature is changed. This is known as phase transformation. For example,
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals pure iron solidifies at 2795°F, the delta structure transforms into a structure referred to as
for Stainless Steels gamma iron. Gamma iron is commonly known as austenite and is a nonmagnetic
structure. At a temperature of 1670°F., the pure iron structure transforms back to the delta
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iron form, but at this temperature, the metal is known as alpha iron. These two phases are
Lesson 6
given different names to differentiate between the high temperature phase (delta) and the
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - low temperature phase (alpha). The capability of the atoms of a material to transform into
GMAW,GTAW,SAW two or more crystalline structures at different temperatures is defined as allotropic. Steels
and iron are allotropic metals.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc 1.4.1 Grains and Grain Boundaries - As the metal is cooled to its freezing point, a
Electrodes Carbon small group of atoms begin to assemble into crystalline form (refer to Figure 3). These
small crystals scattered throughout the body of the liquid are oriented in all directions and Chapter
as solidification continues, more crystals are formed from the surrounding liquid. Often, (Faster
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Lesson 8 they take the form of dendrites, or a treelike structure. As crystallization continues, the
Hardsurfacing crystals begin to touch one another, their free growth hampered, and the remaining liquid
Electrodes
freezes to the adjacent crystals until solidification is complete. The solid is now composed Search
of individual crystals that usually meet at different orientations. Where these crystals meet Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 is called a grain boundary.
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Estimating &
Comparing Weld 1.4.1.2 A number of conditions influence the initial grain size. It is important to know that
Metal Costs
cooling rate and temperature has an important influence on the newly solidified grain
structure and grain size. To illustrate differences in grain formation, let's look at the cooling
Lesson 10 phases in a weld.

Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
GRAIN Contents
BOUNDARIES
Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding BASE
Processes METAL
DENDRITE INITIAL COMPLETE

FORMATION CRYSTAL FORMATION SOLIDIFICATION Go To Test
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes FIGURE 3
for Welding Print
Mild Steels 1.4.1.3 Initial crystal formation begins at the coolest spot in the weld. That spot is at the
point where the molten metal and the unmelted base metal meet. As the metal continues
Lesson 4 to solidify, you will note that the grains in the center are smaller and finer in texture than the Glossary
Covered Electrodes grains at the outer boundaries of the weld deposit. This is explained by the fact that as the
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels weld metal cools, the heat from the center of the weld deposit will dissipate into the base
metal through the outer grains that solidified first. Consequently, the grains that solidified
first were at high temperatures for a longer time while in the solid state and this is a
Lesson 5
situation that encourages grain growth. Grain size can have an effect on the soundness of
for Stainless Steels the weld. The smaller grains are stronger and more ductile than the larger grains. If a
crack occurs, the tendency is for it to start in the area where the grains are largest.
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Lesson 6 1.4.1.4 To summarize this section, it should be understood that all metals are composed
Carbon & Low Alloy of crystals of grains. The shape and characteristics of crystals are determined by the
GMAW,GTAW,SAW arrangement of their atoms. The atomic pattern of a single element can change its
arrangement at different temperatures, and that this atomic pattern or microstructure
determines the properties of the metals.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels
1.5 HEAT TREATMENT Search
Chapter
The temperature that metal is heated, the length of time it is held at that temperature, and (Faster
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Lesson 8 the rate that it is cooled, all have an effect on a metal's crystalline structure. This crystalline
Hardsurfacing structure, commonly referred to as "microstructure," determines the specific properties of
Electrodes
metals. There are various ways of manipulating the microstructure, either at the steel mill Search
or in the welding procedure. Some of the more common ways are as follows: Document
(Slower
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1.5.1 Preheat - Most metals are rather good conductors of heat. As a result, the heat
Estimating &
Comparing Weld in the weld area is rapidly dispersed through the whole weldment to all surfaces where it is
Metal Costs radiated to the atmosphere causing comparatively rapid cooling. In some metals, this rapid
cooling may contribute to the formation of microstructures in the weld zone that are detri-
Lesson 10 mental. Preheating the weldment before it is welded is a method of slowing the cooling
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Welding Table of
rate of the metal. The preheat temperature may vary from 150°F to 1000°F, but more Contents
commonly it is held in the 300°F to 400°F range. The thicker the weld metal, the more
Lesson 2 likely will it be necessary to preheat, because the heat will be conducted away from the
Common Electric weld zone more rapidly as the mass increases.
Arc Welding
Processes
1.5.2 Stress Relieving - Metals expand when heated and contract when cooled. The
amount of expansion is directly proportional to the amount of heat applied. In a weldment, Go To Test
Lesson 3 the metal closest to the weld is subjected to the highest temperature, and as the distance
Covered Electrodes
for Welding from the weld zone increases, the maximum temperature reached decreases. This nonuni- Print
Mild Steels form heating causes nonuniform expansion and contraction and can cause distortion and
internal stresses within the weldment. Depending on its composition and usage, the metal
Lesson 4 may not be able to resist these stresses and cracking or early failure of the part may occur.
Glossary
Covered Electrodes One way to minimize these stresses or to relieve them is by uniformly heating the structure
for Welding Low
after it has been welded. The metal is heated to temperatures just below the point where a
Alloy Steels
microstructure change would occur and then it is cooled at a slow rate.
Lesson 5 1.5.3 Hardening - The hardness of steel may be increased by heating it to 50°F to
Welding Filler Metals 100°F above the temperature that a microstructure change occurs, and then placing the
metal in a liquid solution that rapidly cools it. This rapid cooling, known as "quenching,"
locks in place microstructures known as "martensite" that contribute to a metal's hardness Turn Pages
Lesson 6 characteristic. The quenching solutions used in this process are rated according to the
Carbon & Low Alloy speed that they cool the metal, i.e., Oil (fast), Water (faster), Salt Brine (fastest).
GMAW,GTAW,SAW 1.5.4 Tempering - After a metal is quenches, it is then usually tempered. Tempering is
a process where the metal is reheated to somewhere below 1335°F, held at that tempera-
Lesson 7 ture for a length of time, and then cooled to room temperature. Tempering reduces the
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon brittleness that is characteristic in hardened steels, thereby producing a good balance
Low Alloy Steels between high strength and toughness. The term toughness, as it applies to metals, usually Search
Chapter
refers to resistance to brittle fracture or notch toughness under certain environmental
(Faster
conditions. More information on these properties will be covered later in this lesson and in Download)
Lesson 8
subsequent lessons. Steels that respond to this type of treatment are known as "quenched
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Electrodes and tempered steels."
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1.5.5 Annealing - A metal that is annealed is heated to a temperature 50° to 100° Document
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Lesson 9 above where a microstructure change occurs, held at that temperature for a sufficient time Download)
Estimating &
for a uniform change to take place, and then cooled at a very slow rate, usually in a fur-
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs nace. The principal reason for annealing is to soften steel and create a uniform fine grain
structure. Welded parts are seldom annealed for the high temperatures would cause
distortion.
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.5.6 Normalizing - The main difference between normalizing and annealing is the Contents
method of cooling. Normalized steel is heated to a temperature approximately 100° above
Lesson 2 where the microstructure transforms and then cooled in still air rather than in a furnace.
Common Electric
Arc Welding 1.5.7 Heat Treatment Trade-Off - It must be noted that these various ways of control-
Processes
ling the heating and cooling of metals can produce a desired property, but sometimes at the
expense of another desirable property. An example of this trade-off is evident in the fact Go To Test
Lesson 3
that certain heat treatments can increase the strength or hardness of metal, but the same
Covered Electrodes
for Welding treatments will also make the metal less ductile or more brittle, and therefore, susceptible Print
Mild Steels to welding problems.
Lesson 4 1.6 PROPERTIES OF METALS Glossary

Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low
The usefulness of a particular metal is determined by the climate and conditions in which it
Alloy Steels
will be used. A metal that is stamped into an automobile fender must be softer and more
pliable than armor plate that must withstand an explosive force, or the material used for an
Lesson 5
oil rig on the Alaska North Slope must perform in a quite different climate than a steam
for Stainless Steels boiler. It becomes obvious that before a material is recommended for a specific use, the
physical and mechanical properties of that metal and the weld metal designed to join it
must be evaluated. Some of the more important properties of metals and the means of Turn Pages
Lesson 6 evaluation are as follows:
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.6.1 Tensile Strength - Tensile strength is one of the most important determining
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
factors in selecting a metal, especially if it is to be a structural member, part of a machine,
or part of a pressure vessel.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon 1.6.1.1 The tensile test is performed as shown in Figure 4. The test specimen is
Low Alloy Steels machined to exact standard dimensions and clamped into the testing apparatus at both Search
Chapter
ends. The specimen is then
(Faster
RECORDING
pulled to the point of fracture DIAL Download)
Lesson 8 TEST
and the data recorded. SPECIMEN
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Electrodes
Search
1.6.1.2 The tensile strength
Document
test gives us 4 primary pieces (Slower
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of information: (1) Yield
Estimating &
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FORCE
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Reduction in Area.
TENSILE TESTING APPARATUS
Lesson 10 FIGURE 4
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Welding Table of
1.6.2 Yield Strength - When a metal is placed in tension, it acts somewhat like a Contents
rubberband. When a load of limited magnitude is applied, the metal stretches, and when
Lesson 2 the load is released, the metal returns to its original shape. This is the elastic characteristic
Common Electric
of metal and is represented by letter A in Figure 5. As a greater load is applied, the metal
Arc Welding
Processes will reach a point where it will no longer return to its original shape but will continue to
stretch. Yield strength is the point where the metal reaches the limit of its elastic character-
Go To Test
istic and will no longer return to its original shape.
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes
for Welding 1.6.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength - Once a metal has exceeded its yield point, it will Print
Mild Steels continue to stretch or deform, and if the load is suddenly released, the metal will not return
to its original shape, but will remain in its elongated form. This is called the plastic region of
Lesson 4 the metal and is represented by the letter B in Figure 5. As this plastic deformation in- Glossary
Covered Electrodes creases, the metal strains
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels against further elongation, and
Ultimate Stre ngth an increased load must be

Elong- Re duction applied to stretch the metal. As
of Are a Yie ld Stre ngth Fracture
Lesson 5 ation
the load is increased, the metal
for Stainless Steels will finally reach a point where it
A B C STRAIN - INCHES
no longer resists and any fur-
Turn Pages
NOMINAL STRESS - STRAIN CURVE ther load applied will rapidly
Lesson 6 FIGURE 5 cause the metal to break. That
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - point at which the metal has
GMAW,GTAW,SAW withstood or resisted the maximum applied load is its ultimate tensile strength. This infor-
mation is usually recorded in pounds per square inch (psi).
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc 1.6.4 Percentage of Elongation - Before a tensile specimen is placed in the tensile
Electrodes Carbon tester, two marks at a measured distance are placed on the opposing ends of the circular
shaft. After the specimen is fractured, the distance between the marks is measured and Chapter
recorded as a percentage of the original distance. See Figure 5. This is the percentage of (Faster
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Lesson 8 elongation and it gives an indication of the ductility of the metal at room temperature.
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes 1.6.5 Reduction of Area - A tensile specimen is machined to exact dimensions. The
Search
area of its midpoint cross-section is a known figure. As the specimen is loaded to the point
Document
of fracture, the area where it breaks is reduced in size. See Figure 5. This reduced area is (Slower
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Estimating & calculated and recorded as a percentage of the original cross-sectional area. This informa-
Comparing Weld tion reflects the relative ductility or brittleness of the metal.
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1.6.6 Charpy Impacts - Metal that is normally strong and ductile at room temperature
may become very brittle at much lower temperatures, and thus, is susceptible to fracture if
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
a sharp abrupt load is applied to it. An impact tester measures the degree of susceptibility Contents
to what is called brittle fracture.
Lesson 2
Common Electric 1.6.6.1 The impact specimen is machined to exact dimensions (Figure 6) and then
Arc Welding
notched on one side. Quite often, the notch is in the form of a "V" and the test in this case
Processes
is referred to as a Charpy V-Notch Impact Test. The specimen is cooled to a
predetermined temperature and then placed in a stationary clamp at the base of the testing Go To Test
Lesson 3
machine. The specimen is in the direct path of a weighted hammer attached to a
Covered Electrodes
for Welding pendulum (Figure 6). Print
Mild Steels
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes ENERGY
for Welding Low IN FT/LBS
Alloy Steels
FRACTURES CRACKS DEFORMS
Lesson 5
CHARPY V-NOTCH
SPECIMEN
Turn Pages
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - CHARPY IMPACT TEST MACHINE
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT TEST
FIGURE 6
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc 1.6.6.2 The hammer is released from a fixed height and the energy required to fracture
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels the specimen is recorded in ft-lbs. A specimen that is cooled to -60°F and absorbs 40 ft-lbs Search
of energy is more ductile, and therefore, more suitable for low temperature service than a Chapter
(Faster
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Lesson 8 withstood 40 ft-lbs energy is said to have better toughness or notch toughness.
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes 1.6.7 Fatigue Strength - A metal will withstand a load less than its ultimate tensile
Search
strength but may break if that load is removed and then reapplied several times. For ex- Document
ample, if a thin wire is bent once, but if it is bent back and forth repeatedly, it will eventually (Slower
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Estimating & fracture and it is said to have exceeded its fatigue strength. A common test for this
Comparing Weld
strength is to place a specimen in a machine that repeatedly applies the same load first in
Metal Costs
tension and then in compression. The fatigue strength is calculated from the number of
cycles the metal withstands before the point of failure is reached.
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.6.8 Creep Strength - If a load below a metal's tensile strength is applied at room Contents
temperature (72°F), it will cause some initial elongation, but there will be no further measur-
Lesson 2 able elongation if the load is kept at a constant level. If that same load were applied to a
Common Electric
metal heated to a high temperature, the situation would change. Although the load is held
Arc Welding
Processes at a constant level, the metal will gradually continue to elongate. This characteristic is
called creep. Eventually, the material may rupture depending on the temperature of the
Go To Test
metal, the degree of load applied and the length of time that it is applied. All three of these
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes factors determine a metal's ability to resist creep, and therefore, its creep strength.
for Welding Print
Mild Steels 1.6.9 Oxidation Resistance - The atoms of metal have a tendency to unite with oxy-
gen in the air to form oxide compounds, the most visible being rust and scale. In some
Lesson 4 metals, these oxides will adhere very tightly to the skin of the metal and effectively seal it Glossary
Covered Electrodes from further oxidation as is evident in stainless steel. These materials have high oxidation
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels resistance. In other metals, the bond is very loose, creating a situation where the oxides
will flake off, and the metal gradually deteriorates as the time of exposure is extended.
Lesson 5 1.6.10 Hardness Test - The resistance of a metal to indentation is a measure of its
hardness and an indication of the materials's strength. To test for hardness, a fixed load
forces an indenter into the test material (Figure 7). The depth of the penetration or the size
of the impression is measured. The measurement is converted into a hardness number Turn Pages
Lesson 6 through the use of a variety of established tables. The most common tables are the Brinell,
Carbon & Low Alloy Vickers, Knoop and Rockwell. The Rockwell is further divided into different scales, and
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
HARDNESS TEST SHAPE OF INDENTER INDENTER DESCRIPTION
ROCKWELL
Lesson 7
A Diamond
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon
C
D
} Cone
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Low Alloy Steels
B 1/16 in. Diameter
F
G
} Steel Sphere
Chapter
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Lesson 8 1/8 in. Diameter
E Steel Sphere
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes
10 mm Sphere of Steel
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BRINNELL or Tungsten Carbide
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VICKERS Diamond Pyramid
Estimating &
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Types of Indenters - Hardness Tests

Lesson 10 FIGURE 7
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Welding Table of
depending on the material being tested, the shape of the indenter and the load applied, the Contents
conversion tables may differ. For example, a material listed as having a hardness of Rb or
Lesson 2 Rc means its hardness has been determined from the Rockwell "B" scale or the Rockwell
Common Electric
Arc Welding "C" scale.
Processes
1.6.11 Coefficient of Expansion - All metals expand when heated and contract when
cooled. This dimensional change is related to the crystalline structure and will vary with Go To Test
Lesson 3
different materials. The different expansion and contraction rates are expressed numeri-
Covered Electrodes
for Welding cally by a coefficient of thermal expansion. When two different metals are heated to the Print
Mild Steels same temperature and cooled at the same rate, the one with the higher numerical coeffi-
cient will expand and contract more than the one with the lesser coefficient.
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes 1.6.12 Thermal Conductivity - Some metals will absorb and transmit heat more readily
for Welding Low than others. They are categorized as having high thermal conductivity. This characteristic
Alloy Steels
contributes to the fact that some metals will melt or undergo transformations at much lower
temperatures than others.
Lesson 5
for Stainless Steels 1.7 EFFECTS OF THE ALLOYING ELEMENTS
Alloying is the process of adding a metal or a nonmetal to pure metals such as copper, Turn Pages
Lesson 6 aluminum or iron. From the time it was discovered that the properties of pure metals could
Carbon & Low Alloy be improved by adding other elements, alloy steel has increased by popularity. In fact,
GMAW,GTAW,SAW metals that are welded are rarely in their pure state. The major properties that can be
improved by adding small amounts of alloying elements are hardness, tensile strength,
ductility and corrosion resistance. Common alloying elements and their effect on the
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc properties of metals are as follows:
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels 1.7.1 Carbon - Carbon is the most effective, most widely used and lowest in cost Search
Chapter
alloying element available for increasing the hardness and strength of metal. An alloy (Faster
containing up to 1.7% carbon in combination with iron is known as steel, whereas the Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing combination above 1.7% carbon is known as cast iron. Although carbon is a desirable
Electrodes alloying element, high levels of it can cause problems; therefore, special care is required
Search
when welding high carbon steels and cast iron.
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(Slower
Lesson 9 1.7.2 Sulphur - Sulphur is normally an undesirable element in steel because it causes Download)
Estimating &
brittleness. It may be deliberately added to improve the machinability of the steel. The
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs sulphur causes the
machine chips to break rather than form long curls and clog the machine. Normally, every
effort is made to reduce the sulphur content to the lowest possible level because it can
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
create welding difficulties. Contents
1.7.3 Manganese - Manganese in contents up to 1% is usually present in all low alloy

Lesson 2
Common Electric steels as a deoxidizer and desulphurizer. That is to say, it readily combines with oxygen
Arc Welding
and sulphur to help negate the undesirable effect these elements have when in their natu-
Processes
ral state. Manganese also increases the tensile strength and hardenability of steel.
Go To Test
Lesson 3 1.7.4 Chromium - Chromium, in combination with carbon, is a powerful hardening
Covered Electrodes
alloying element. In addition to its hardening properties, chromium increases corrosion
for Welding Print
Mild Steels resistance and the strength of steel at high temperatures. Chromium is the primary alloying
element in stainless steel.
Lesson 4 1.7.5 Nickel - The greatest single property of steel that is improved by the presence of Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low nickel is its ductility or notch toughness. In this respect, it is the most effective of all alloy-
Alloy Steels ing elements in improving a steel's resistance to impact at low temperatures. Electrodes
with high nickel content are used to weld cast iron materials. Nickel is also used in combi-
Lesson 5 nation with chromium to form a group known as austenitic stainless steel.
for Stainless Steels 1.7.6 Molybdenum - Molybdenum strongly increases the depth of the hardening
characteristic of steel. It is quite often used in combination with chromium to improve the
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strength of the steel at high temperatures. This group of steels is usually referred to as
Lesson 6
chrome-moly steels.
Carbon & Low Alloy
1.7.7 Silicon - Silicon is usually contained in steel as a deoxidizer. Silicon will add
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
strength to steel but excessive amounts can reduce the ductility. Additional amounts of
silicon are sometimes added to welding electrodes to increase the fluid flow of weld metal.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon 1.7.8 Phosphorus - Phosphorus is considered a harmful residual element in steel
Low Alloy Steels because it greatly reduces ductility and toughness. Efforts are made to reduce it to its very Search
Chapter
lowest levels; however, phosphorus is added in very small amounts to some steels to (Faster
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Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
1.7.9 Aluminum - Aluminum is primarily used as a deoxidizer in steel. It may also be
Electrodes
used in very small amounts to control the size of the grains. Search
Document
1.7.10 Copper - Copper contributes greatly to the corrosion resistance of carbon steel (Slower
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Estimating & by retarding the rate of rusting at room temperature, but high levels of copper can cause
Comparing Weld
welding difficulties.
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Welding Table of
1.7.11 Columbium - Columbium is used in austenitic stainless steel to act as a stabi- Contents
lizer. Since the carbon in the stainless steel decreases the corrosion resistance, a means
Lesson 2 of making carbon ineffective must be found. Columbium has a greater affinity for carbon
Common Electric
than chromium, leaving the chromium free for corrosion protection.
Arc Welding
Processes
1.7.12 Tungsten - Tungsten is used in steel to given strength at high temperatures.
Tungsten also joins with carbon to form carbides that are exceptionally hard, and therefore Go To Test
Lesson 3
have exceptional resistance to wear.
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Print
Mild Steels 1.7.13 Vanadium - Vanadium helps keep steel in the desirable fine grain condition after
heat treatment. It also helps increase the depth of hardening and resists softening of the
steel during tempering treatments.
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes
1.7.14 Nitrogen - Usually, efforts are made to eliminate hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels from steel because their presence can cause brittleness. Nitrogen has the ability to form
austenitic structures; therefore, it is sometimes added to austenitic stainless steel to reduce
Lesson 5 the amount of nickel needed, and therefore, the production costs of that steel.
for Stainless Steels 1.7.15 Alloying Elements Summary - It should be understood that the addition of
elements to a pure metal may influence the crystalline form of the resultant alloy. If a pure
Turn Pages
metal has allotropic characteristics (the ability of a metal to change its crystal structure) at a
Lesson 6
specific temperature, then that characteristic will occur over a range of temperatures with
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - the alloyed metal. The range in which the change takes place may be wide or narrow,
GMAW,GTAW,SAW depending on the alloys and the quantities in which they are added. The alloying element
may also effect the crystalline changes by either suppressing the appearance of certain
Lesson 7 crystalline forms or even by creating entirely new forms. All these transformations induced
Flux Cored Arc by alloying elements are dependent on heat input and cooling rates. These factors are
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels closely controlled at the steel mill, but since the welding operation involves a nonuniform Search
heating and cooling of metal, special care is often needed in the welding of low and high Chapter
(Faster
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Lesson 8
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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART B Current

Welding Table of
1.8 ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING Contents
1.8.1 Principles of Electricity - Arc welding is a method of joining metals accom-

Lesson 2
Common Electric plished by applying sufficient electrical pressure to an electrode to maintain a current path
Arc Welding (arc) between the electrode and the work piece. In this process, electrical energy is
Processes
changed into heat energy, bringing the metals to a molten state; whereby they are joined.
The electrode (conductor) is either melted and added to the base metal or remains in its Go To Test
Lesson 3 solid state. All arc welding utilizes the transfer of electrical energy to heat energy, and to
Covered Electrodes
for Welding understand this principle, a basic knowledge of electricity and welding power sources is Print
Mild Steels necessary.
1.8.1.1 The three basis principles of static electricity are as follows:

Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes 1. There are two kinds of electrical charges in existence - negative and positive.
for Welding Low
2. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
Alloy Steels
3. Charges can be transferred from one place to another.
Lesson 5 1.8.1.2 Science has established that all matter is made up of atoms and each atom
for Stainless Steels contains fundamental particles. One of these particles is the electron, which has the ability
to move from one place to another. The electron is classified as a negative electrical
charge. Another particle, about 1800 times as heavy as the electron, is the proton and Turn Pages
Lesson 6 under normal conditions the proton will remain stationary.
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.8.1.3 Material is said to be in an electrically uncharged state when its atoms contain an
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
equal number of positive charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons). This balance
is upset when pressure forces the electrons to move from atom to atom. This pressure,
Lesson 7
sometimes referred to as electromotive force, is commonly known as voltage. It should be
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon noted that voltage that does not move through a conductor, but without voltage, there would
Low Alloy Steels be no current flow. For our purposes, it is easiest to think of voltage as the electrical Search
Chapter
pressure that forces the electrons to move. (Faster
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Lesson 8 1.8.1.4 Since we know that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, the tendency is
Hardsurfacing
for the electrons to move from a position of over-supply (negative charge) to an atom that
Electrodes
lacks electrons (positive charge). This tendency becomes reality when a suitable path is Search
Document
provided for the movement of the electrons. The transfer of electrons from a negative to a
(Slower
Lesson 9 positive charge throughout the length of a conductor constitutes an electrical current. The Download)
Estimating &
rate that current flows through a conductor is measured in amperes and the word ampere
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs is often used synonymously with the term current. To give an idea of the quantities of
electrons that flow through a circuit, it has been theoretically established that one ampere
equals 6.3 quintillion (6,300,000,000,000,000,000) electrons flowing past a fixed point in a
Lesson 10
conductor every second.
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Welding Table of
1.8.1.5 Different materials vary in their ability to transfer electrons. Substances, such as Contents
wood and rubber, have what is called a tight electron bond and their atoms greatly resist
Lesson 2 the free movement of electrons. Such materials are considered poor electrical conductors.
Common Electric
Metals, on the other hand, have large amounts of electrons that transfer freely. Their
Arc Welding
Processes comparatively low electrical resistance classifies them as good electrical conductors.
1.8.1.6 Electrical resistance is primarily due to the reluctance of atoms to give up their Go To Test
Lesson 3
electron particles. It may also be thought of as the resistance to current flow.
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Print
Mild Steels 1.8.1.7 To better understand the electrical terms discussed above, we might compare
the closed water system with the electrical diagram shown in Figure 8. You can see that as
the pump is running, the water will move in the direction of the arrows. It moves because
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes pressure has been produced and that pressure can be likened to voltage in an electrical
for Welding Low circuit. The pump can be compared to a battery or a DC generator. The water flows
Alloy Steels
VALVE
SWITCH
Lesson 5
for Stainless Steels RESISTOR
10 OHM
LARGE
SMALL PIPE
PIPE PUMP Turn Pages
BATTERY
Lesson 6 12 VOLT
Carbon & Low Alloy CLOSED WATER SYSTEM ELECTRICAL DIAGRAM
GMAW,GTAW,SAW FIGURE 8
through the system at a certain rate. This flow rate in an electrical circuit is a unit of
Lesson 7
measure known as the ampere. The small pipe in the fluid circuit restricts the flow rate and
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon can be likened to a resistor. This unit resistance is known as the ohm. If we close the
valve in the fluid circuit, we stop the flow, and this can be compared to opening a switch in
Chapter
an electrical circuit. (Faster
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Lesson 8 1.8.2 Ohm's Law - Resistance is basic to electrical theory and to understand this
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes principle, we must know the Ohm's Law, which is stated as follows: In any electrical circuit,
the current flow in amperes is directly proportional to the circuit voltage applied and in- Search
Document
versely proportional to the circuit resistance. Directly proportional means that even though (Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
the voltage and amperage may change, the ratio of their relationship will not. For example,
Estimating &
Comparing Weld if we have a circuit of one volt and three amps, we say the ratio is one to three. Now if we
Metal Costs increase the volts to three, our amperage will increase proportionately to nine amps. As
can be seen, even though the voltage and amperage changed in numerical value, their
ratio did not. The term "inversely proportional" simply means that if the resistance is
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
doubled, the current will be reduced to one-half. Ohm's Law can be stated mathematically Contents
with this equation:
Lesson 2
Common Electric I=E÷R or E=I×R or R=E÷I
Arc Welding
(E = Volts, I = Amperes, R = Resistance (Ohms))
Processes
1.8.2.1 The equation is easy to use as seen in the following problems: Go To Test
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes 1) A 12 volt battery has a built-in resistance of 10 ohms. What is the amperage?
for Welding Print
Mild Steels 12 ÷ 10 = 1.2 amps
2) What voltage is required to pass 15 amps through a resistor of 5 ohms?

Lesson 4 Glossary
15 × 5 = 75 volts
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low
3) When the voltage is 80 and the circuit is limited to 250 amps, what is the value
Alloy Steels
of the resistor?
80 ÷ 250 = .32 ohms

Lesson 5
for Stainless Steels 1.8.2.2 The theory of electrical resistance is of great importance in the arc welding
process for it is this resistance in the air space between the electrode and the base metal
Turn Pages
that contributes to the transfer of electrical energy to heat energy. As voltage forces the
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy electrons to move faster, the energy they generate is partially used to overcome the
Steel Filler Metals - resistance created by the arc gap. This energy becomes evident as heat. In the welding
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
process, the temperature increases to the point where it brings metals to a molten state.
1.8.3 Electrical Power - The word "watt" is another term frequently encountered in
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc electrical terminology. When we pay our electrical bills, we are actually paying for the
Electrodes Carbon
power to run our electrical appliances, and the watt is a unit of power. It is defined as the Search
Low Alloy Steels
amount of power required to maintain a current of one ampere at a pressure of one volt. Chapter
(Faster
The circuit voltage that comes into your home is a constant factor, but the amperage drawn
Download)
Lesson 8 from the utility company depends on the number of watts required to run the electrical
Hardsurfacing
appliance. The watt is figured as a product of volts times amperes and is stated math-
Electrodes
ematically with the following equation: Search
Document
W =E × I E =W÷I I =W÷E (Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating & (W = Watts, E = Volts, I = Amperes)
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs
1.8.3.1 The amperage used by an electrical device can be calculated by dividing the
watts rating of the device by the primary voltage for which it is designed.
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.8.3.2 For example, if an appliance is designed for the common household primary Contents
voltage of 115 and the wattage stamped on the appliance faceplate is 5, then the
Lesson 2 amperage drawn by the appliance when in operation is determined as shown:
Common Electric
Arc Welding
5 ÷ 115 = .04 amperes
Processes
1.8.3.3 Kilowatt is another term common in electrical usage. The preface "kilo" is a Go To Test
Lesson 3 metric designation that means 1,000 units of something; therefore, one kilowatt is 1,000
Covered Electrodes
for Welding watts of power. Print
Mild Steels
1.8.4 Power Generation - Electrical energy is supplied either as direct current (DC) or
alternating current (AC). With direct current, the electron movement within the conductor is
Lesson 4 Glossary
in one direction only. With alternating current, the electron flow reverses periodically. Al-
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low though some types of electrical generators will produce current directly (such as batteries,
Alloy Steels dry cells, or DC generators), most direct current is developed from alternating current.
1.8.4.1 Through experimentation, it was discovered that when a wire is moved through a
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals magnetic field, an electrical current is induced into the wire, and the current is at its
for Stainless Steels maximum when the motion of the conductor is at right
angles to the magnetic lines of force. The sketch GALVANOMETER
Turn Pages
in Figure 9 will help to illustrate this principle.
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
1.8.4.2 If the conductor is moved upwards in
GMAW,GTAW,SAW the magnetic field between the N and S poles,
the galvanometer needle will deflect plus (+).
Lesson 7 Likewise, if the conductor is moved downwards

Flux Cored Arc the needle will deflect minus (-). With this
Electrodes Carbon
principle of converting mechanical energy into Search
Low Alloy Steels ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
electrical energy understood, we can apply it to INDUCTION Chapter
(Faster
the workings of an AC generator.
Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing 1.8.4.3 Figure 10 is a simplified sketch of an AC FIGURE 9
Electrodes generator. Starting at 0° rotation, the coil wire is moving
Search
parallel to the magnetic lines of force and cutting none of them. Therefore, no current is Document
being induced into the winding. (Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating &
Comparing Weld 1.8.4.4 From 0° to 90° rotation, the coil wire cuts an increasing number of magnetic lines
Metal Costs of force and reaches the maximum number at 90° rotation. The current increases to the
maximum because the wire is now at right angles to the lines of force.
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
ROTATING COIL 0° 90° Contents
OR ARMATURE
N S N S
Lesson 2
Common Electric N
Arc Welding
Processes 180° 270°
N S N S Go To Test
S
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Print
Mild Steels
PERMANENT MAGNETS
CONTACTS OR FIELD COILS
BASIC AC POWER GENERATION

Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes FIGURE 10
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels 1.8.4.5 From 90° to 180° rotation, the coil wire cuts a diminishing number of lines of
force and at 180° again reaches zero.
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals 1.8.4.6 From 180° to 270°, the current begins to rise again but in the opposite direction
for Stainless Steels because now the wire is in closer proximity to the opposite pole.
1.8.4.7 One cycle is completed as the coil wire moves from 270° to 0° and the current Turn Pages
Lesson 6 again drops to zero.
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.8.4.8 With the aid of a graph, we can visualize the rate at which the lines of force are
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
cut throughout the cycle. If we plot the current versus degree of rotation, we get the
familiar sine wave as seen in Figure 11.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
1.8.4.9 With this sine wave, we can
Electrodes Carbon (+) MAXIMUM (+)
Low Alloy Steels see that one complete cycle of Search
alternating current comprises one Chapter
(Faster
positive and one negative wave Download)
0
Lesson 8 (negative and positive meaning
0 0
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes electron flow in opposing directions).
The frequency of alternating current is Search
Document
the number of such complete cycles
MA XIMUM (–) (Slower
Lesson 9 per second. For most power (–) Download)
Estimating & 0°
START
90°
1/4 TURN
180°
1/2 TURN
270°
3/4 TURN
360°
FULL TURN
Comparing Weld applications, 60 cycles per second (60

Metal Costs Hertz) is the standard frequency in
ONE CYCLE - A LTERNATING CURRENT
North America.
FIGURE 11
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Welding Table of
1.8.4.10 Some welders use a three-phase AC supply. Three-phase is simply three Contents
sources of AC power as identical voltages brought in by three wires, the three voltages or
Lesson 2 phases being separated by 120 electrical degrees. If
Common Electric 120° 240°
the sine wave for the three phases are plotted on one
Arc Welding
Processes line, they will appear as shown in Figure 12. 0°
1.8.4.11 This illustrates that three-phase power is Go To Test

Lesson 3
smoother than single-phase because the overlapping 1 CYCLE
Covered Electrodes
for Welding three phases prevent the current and voltage from THREE PHASE AC Print
Mild Steels falling to zero 120 times a second, thereby producing a
FIGURE 12
smoother welding arc.
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes 1.8.4.12 Since all shops do not have three-phase power, welding machines for both
for Welding Low single-phase and three-phase power are available.
Alloy Steels
1.8.5 Transformers - The function of a transformer is to increase or decrease voltage
Lesson 5 to a safe value as the conditions demand. Common household voltage is usually 115 or
Welding Filler Metals 230 volts, whereas industrial power requirements may be 208, 230, 380, or 460 volts.
Transmitting such relatively low voltages over long distances would require a conductor of
enormous and impractical size. Therefore, power transmitted from a power plant must be
Turn Pages
stepped up for long distance transmission and then stepped down for final use
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - 1.8.5.1 As can be seen in Figure 13, the voltage is generated at the power plant at
GMAW,GTAW,SAW 13,800 volts. It is increased, transmitted over long distances, and then reduced in steps for
the end user. If power supplied to a transformer circuit is held steady, then secondary
Lesson 7 current (amperes) decreases as the primary voltage increases, and conversely, secondary
Flux Cored Arc current increases as primary voltage decreases. Since the current flow (amperes)
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels determines the wire or conductor size, the high voltage line may be of a relatively small Search
diameter. Chapter
(Faster
Download)
Lesson 8
4,600
Hardsurfacing HIGH VOLTAGE
V
Electrodes 34,000 V
208V
230V
Search
13,800 V
287,000 132,000 V 460V Document
POWER V STEP
FINAL (Slower
Lesson 9 PLANT STEP
DOWN
USE
Download)
UP
Estimating &
300 MILES
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs POWER TRANSMISSION
FIGURE 13
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Welding Table of
1.8.5.2 The transformer in a welding machine performs much the same as a large power Contents
plant transformer. The primary voltage coming into the machine is too high for safe
Lesson 2 welding. Therefore, it is stepped down to a useable voltage. This is best illustrated with an
Common Electric
explanation of how a single transformer works.
Arc Welding
Processes
1.8.5.3 In the preceding paragraphs, we have found than an electrical current can be
induced into a conductor when that conductor is moved through a magnetic field to Go To Test
Lesson 3
produce alternating current. If this alternating current is passed through a conductor, a
Covered Electrodes
for Welding pulsating magnetic field will surround the exterior of that conductor, that is the magnetic Print
Mild Steels field will build in intensity through the first 90 electrical degrees, or the first cycle. From that
point, the magnetic field will decay during the next quarter cycle until the voltage or current
Lesson 4 reaches zero at 180 electrical degrees. Immediately, the current direction reverses and the Glossary
Covered Electrodes magnetic field will begin to build again until it reaches a maximum at 270 electrical degrees
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels in the cycle. From that point the current and the magnetic field again begin to decay until
they reach zero at 360 electrical degrees, where the cycle begins again.
Lesson 5 1.8.5.4 If that conductor is wound around a material with high magnetic permeability
(magnetic permeability is the ability to accept large amounts of magnetic lines of force)
such as steel, the magnetic field permeates that core. See
STEEL CORE
Figure 14. This conductor is called the primary coil, and if Turn Pages
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Lesson 6 voltage is applied to one of its terminals and the circuit is COIL COIL
Carbon & Low Alloy completed, current will flow. When a second coil is wound 460 V
Steel Filler Metals - 80 V
GMAW,GTAW,SAW around that same steel core, the energy that is stored in
80
460 TURNS
this fluctuating magnetic field in the core is induced into
TURNS
this secondary coil.
Lesson 7
BASIC TRANSFORMER
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon 1.8.5.5 It is the build-up and collapse of this magnetic
FIGURE 14 Search
Low Alloy Steels field that excite the electrons in the secondary coil of the
Chapter
transformer. This causes an electrical current of the same frequency as the primary coil to (Faster
flow when the secondary circuit is completed by striking the welding arc. Remember that Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing all transformers operate only on alternating current.
Electrodes
1.8.5.6 A simplified version of a welding transformer is schematically shown in Figure 15. Search
Document
This welder would operate on 230 volts input power and the primary winding has 230 turns
(Slower
Lesson 9 of wire on the core. We need 80 volts for initiating the arc in the secondary or welding Download)
Estimating &
circuit, thus we have 80 turns of wire in the secondary winding of the core. Before the arc
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs is struck, the voltage between the electrode and the work piece is 80 volts. Remember that
no current (amperage) flows until the welding circuit is completed by striking the arc.
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.8.5.7 Since the 80 volts Contents
9600 WATTS 9600 WATTS
necessary for initiating the arc
230 TURNS 80 TURNS
Lesson 2 is too high for practical 41.74 32 VOLTS
Common Electric AMPS 300 AMPS
welding, some means must be 230 80
Arc Welding VOLTS PRIMARY SECONDARY OCV
Processes used to lower this voltage to a
suitable level. Theoretically, a OUTPUT
CONTROL Go To Test
variable resistor of the proper
Lesson 3
SIMPLIFIED WELDING TRANSFORMER
Covered Electrodes value could be used as an
for Welding FIGURE 15 Print
output control since voltage is
Mild Steels
inversely proportional to
resistance as we saw when studying Ohm's Law. Ohm's Law also stated that the
Lesson 4 amperage is directly proportional to the voltage. This being so, you can see that adjusting Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low the output control will also adjust the amperage or welding current.
Alloy Steels
1.8.5.8 After the arc is initiated and current begins to flow through the secondary or
welding circuit, the voltage in that circuit will be 32 volts because it is then being controlled
Lesson 5
by the output control.
1.8.6 Power Requirements - We can make another calculation by looking back at
Figure 15, and that is power consumption. Earlier, we explained that the watt was the unit Turn Pages
Lesson 6 of electrical power and can be calculated by the formula:
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - Watts = Volts × Amperes
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
1.8.6.1 From Figure 15, we can see that the instantaneous power in the secondary
Lesson 7 circuit is:
Flux Cored Arc Watts = 32 × 300
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels Watts = 9600 Watts Search
Chapter
1.8.6.2 The primary side of our transformer must be capable of supplying 9600 watts (Faster
Download)
Lesson 8 also (disregarding losses due to heating, power factor, etc.), so by rearranging the formula,
Hardsurfacing we can calculate the required supply line current or amperage:
Electrodes
Amperage = Watts ÷ Volts Search
A = 9600 ÷ 230 = 41.74 Amps Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating & 1.8.6.3 This information establishes the approximate power requirements for the welder,
Comparing Weld
and helps to determine the input cable and fuse size necessary.
Metal Costs
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.8.7 Rectifying AC to DC - Although much welding is accomplished with AC welding Contents
power sources, the majority of industrial welding is done with machines that produce a
Lesson 2 direct current arc. The commercially produced AC
Common Electric
power that operates the welding machine
Arc Welding
Processes must then be changed (rectified) to direct
current for the DC arc. This is accom-
Go To Test
plished with a device called a rectifier.
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes Two types of rectifiers have been used
for Welding Print
extensively in welding machines, the
Mild Steels SELENIUM RECTIFIER
old selenium rectifiers and the more SILICON RECTIFIER
modern silicon rectifiers, often referred FIGURE 16
Lesson 4 to as diodes. See Figure 16. Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels 1.8.7.1 The function of a rectifier in the
circuit can best be shown by the use of the
AC sine wave. With one diode in the circuit,
Lesson 5
half-wave rectification takes place as shown
Welding Filler Metals SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
for Stainless Steels in Figure 17. FIGURE 17
1.8.7.2 The negative half-wave is simply cut off and a pulsating DC is produced. During Turn Pages
Lesson 6 the positive half-cycle, current is allowed to flow through the rectifier. During the negative
Carbon & Low Alloy half-cycle, the current is blocked. This produces a DC composed of 60 positive pulses per
GMAW,GTAW,SAW second.
1.8.7.3 By using four rectifiers connected in a

Lesson 7
certain manner, a bridge rectifier is created, producing
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon full wave rectification. The bridge rectifier results in
Low Alloy Steels 120 positive half-cycles per second, producing a Search
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION Chapter
considerably smoother direct current than half-wave FIGURE 18 (Faster
rectification. See Figure 18. Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes 1.8.7.4 Three-phase AC can be rectified to 1 CYCLE
produce an even smoother DC than single-phase Search
Document
AC. Since three-phase AC power produces three
(Slower
Lesson 9 times as many half-cycles per second as single- Download)
Estimating &
Comparing Weld phase power, a relatively smooth DC voltage
3 PHASE FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
Metal Costs results as shown in Figure 19.
FIGURE 19
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.9 CONSTANT CURRENT OR CONSTANT VOLTAGE Contents
Lesson 2 Welding power sources are designed in many sizes and shapes. They may supply either
Common Electric AC or DC, or both, and they may have various means of controlling their voltage and
Arc Welding
amperage output. The reasons for this is that the power source must be capable of
Processes
producing the proper arc characteristics for the welding process being used. A power
source that produces a satisfactory arc when welding with coated electrodes will be less Go To Test
Lesson 3
than satisfactory for welding with solid and flux cored wires.
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Print
1.9.1 Constant Current Characteristics - Constant current power sources are used
Mild Steels
primarily with coated electrodes. This type of power source has a relatively small change in
amperage and arc power for a corresponding relatively large change in arc voltage or arc
Lesson 4 Glossary
Covered Electrodes length, thus the name constant current. The characteristics of this power source are best
for Welding Low illustrated by observing a graph that plots the volt-
Alloy Steels
ampere curve. As can be seen in Figure 20, the 80
VOLT / AMPERE CURVE
curve of a constant current machine drops down- CONSTANT CURRENT
70
Lesson 5 ward rather sharply and for this reason, this type of
Welding Filler Metals 60
machine is often called a "drooper."
V
50
O 34V - 290
1.9.1.1 In welding with coated electrodes, the L A
T
Turn Pages
40
output current or amperage is set by the operator 32V - 300 A
Lesson 6 S
Carbon & Low Alloy while the voltage is designed into the unit. The 30
30V - 308 A
Steel Filler Metals - operator can vary the arc voltage somewhat by
20
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
increasing or decreasing the arc length. A slight
10
increase in arc length will cause an increase in arc
Lesson 7 voltage and a slight decrease in amperage. A slight 100 200 300
Flux Cored Arc
decrease in arc length will cause a decrease in arc AMPERES
Electrodes Carbon CONSTANT CURRENT VOLT / AMPERE CURVE
Low Alloy Steels voltage and a slight increase in amperage. Search
FIGURE 20
Chapter
(Faster
1.9.2 Constant Voltage Characteristics - Constant voltage power sources, also
Download)
Lesson 8 known as constant potential, are used in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes, and
Hardsurfacing
as the name implies, the voltage output remains relatively constant. On this type of power
Electrodes
source, the voltage is set at the machine and amperage is determined by the speed that Search
Document
the wire is fed to the welding gun. Increasing the wire feed speed increases the amperage.
(Slower
Lesson 9 Decreasing the wire feed speed decreases the amperage. Download)
Estimating &
Comparing Weld
1.9.2.1 Arc length plays an important part in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes,
Metal Costs
just as it does in welding with a coated electrode. However, when using a constant voltage
power source and a wire feeder that delivers the wire at a constant speed, arc length
Lesson 10 caused by operator error, plate irregularities, and puddle movement are automatically
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1 dari 1 08/02/2021 19:08


Welding Table of
compensated for by the characteristics of this process. To understand this, keep in mind Contents
that with the proper voltage setting, amperage setting, and arc length, the rate that the wire
Lesson 2 melts is dependent upon the amperage. If the amperage decreases, this melt-off rate
Common Electric
decreases and if the amperage increases, so does the melt-off rate.
Arc Welding
Processes
1.9.2.2 In Figure 21, we see that condition #2 produces the desired arc length, voltage,
and amperage. If the arc length is increased as in #1, the voltage increases slightly; the Go To Test
Lesson 3
amperage decreases considerably, and therefore, the melt-off rate of the wire decreases.
Covered Electrodes
for Welding The wire is now feeding faster than it is melting Print
1 2 3
Mild Steels off. This condition will advance the end of the
wire towards the work piece until the proper arc
Lesson 4 length is reached where again, the melt-off rate 40
Glossary
Covered Electrodes equals the feeding rate. If the arc length is
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels decreased as in #3, the voltage drops off 30
V
slightly, the amperage is increased O
L
considerably, and the melt-off rate of the wire T 20
Lesson 5 S
increases. Since the wire is now melting off
for Stainless Steels faster than it is being fed, it melts back to the 10
proper arc length where the melt-off rate

Turn Pages
equals the feeding rate. This is often referred
100 200 300 400
Lesson 6 AMPERES
to as a self-adjusting arc. These automatic
Carbon & Low Alloy
VOLT / AMPERE CURVE - CONSTANT VOLTAGE
Steel Filler Metals - corrections take place in fractions of a second,
FIGURE 21
GMAW,GTAW,SAW and usually without the operator being aware
of them.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc 1.9.2.3 There are a variety of different welding machines, each with its own unique
Electrodes Carbon internal design. Our purpose is not to detail the function of each part of the machine, but to
emphasize that their main difference is in the way they control the voltage and amperage Chapter
output. (Faster
Download)
Lesson 8
1.9.3 Types of Welding Power Sources - A great variety of welding power sources
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes are being built today for electric arc welding and we shall mention some of the major types
Search
briefly. Welding power sources can be divided into two main categories: static types and
Document
rotating types. (Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating & 1.9.3.1 Static Types - Static type power sources are all of those that use commercially
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs generated electrical power to energize a transformer that, in turn, steps the line voltage
down to useable welding voltages. The two major categories of static power sources are
the transformer type and the rectifier type.
Lesson 10
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Welding Table of
1.9.3.1.1 The transformer type produce only alternating current. They are commonly Contents
called "Welding Transformers." All AC types utilize single-phase primary power and are of
Lesson 2 the constant current type.
Common Electric
Arc Welding 1.9.3.1.2 The rectifier types are commonly called "Welding Rectifiers" and produce DC or,
Processes
AC and DC welding current. They may utilize either single phase or three phase input
power. They contain a transformer, but rectify the AC or DC by the use of selenium Go To Test
Lesson 3 rectifiers, silicon diodes or silicon controlled rectifiers. Available in either the constant
Covered Electrodes
for Welding current or the constant voltage type, some manufacturers offer units that are a combination Print
Mild Steels of both and can be used for coated electrode welding, non-consumable electrode welding
and for welding with solid or flux cored wires.
Lesson 4 Glossary
1.9.3.2 Rotating Types - Rotating type power sources may be divided into two classifi-
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low cations:
Alloy Steels 1. Motor-Generators
2. Engine Driven
Lesson 5
1.9.3.2.1 Motor-generator types consist of an electric motor coupled to a generator or
for Stainless Steels alternator that produces the desired welding power. These machines produced excellent
welds, but due to the moving parts, required considerable maintenance. Few, if any, are
being built today. Turn Pages
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy 1.9.3.2.2 Engine driven types consist of a gasoline or diesel engine coupled to a generator
or alternator that produces the desired welding power. They are used extensively on jobs
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
beyond commercial power lines and also as mobile repair units. Both rotating types can
deliver either AC or DC welding power, or a combination of both. Both types are available
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc as constant current or constant voltage models.
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels 1.9.4 Power Source Controls - Welding power sources differ also in the method of Search
Chapter
controlling the output current or voltage. Output may be controlled mechanically as in (Faster
machines having a tapped reactor, a moveable shunt or diverter, or a moveable coil. Elec- Download)
Lesson 8
trical types of controls, such as magnetic amplifiers or saturable reactors, are also utilized
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes and the most modern types, containing silicon controlled rectifiers, give precise electronic
Search
control.
Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 1.9.4.1 A detailed discussion of the many types of welding power sources on the market Download)
Estimating &
today is much too lengthy a subject for this course, although additional information on the
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs type of power sources for the various welding processes will be covered in Lesson II.
1.9.4.2 Excellent literature is available from power source manufacturers, however, and
Lesson 10 should be consulted for further reference.
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1 dari 1 08/02/2021 19:09

Lesson1_33_33 https://www.esabna.com/euweb/awtc/lesson1_33.htm
Lesson 1 LESSON I, GLOSSARY Current

Welding Table of
APPENDIX A Contents
LESSON I - GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding
Processes
AISI — American Iron and Steel Institute
Go To Test
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes Allotropic — A material in which the atoms are capable of transforming into two
for Welding or more crystalline structures at different temperatures. Print
Mild Steels
Alternating — An electrical current which alternately travels in either direction in a

Lesson 4 Current conductor. In 60 cycles per second (60 Hz) AC, the frequency Glossary
Covered Electrodes
used in the U.S.A., the current direction reverses 120 times every
for Welding Low
Alloy Steels second.
Ampere — Unit of electrical rate of flow. Amperage is commonly referred to as

Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals the “current” in an electrical circuit.
ASME — American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Turn Pages
Lesson 6
ASTM — American Society for Testing and Materials
Carbon & Low Alloy
GMAW,GTAW,SAW Atom — The smallest particle of an element that posses all of the
characteristics of that element. It consists of protons, neutrons,
Lesson 7 and electrons.
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon
Low Alloy Steels Carbon Steel — (Sometimes referred to as mild steel.) An alloy of iron and carbon. Search
Chapter
Carbon content is usually below 0.3%.
(Faster
Download)
Lesson 8
Conductor — A material which has a relatively large number of loosely bonded
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes electrons which may move freely when voltage (electrical pressure)
is applied. Metals are good conductors. Search
Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 Constant Current — (As applied to welding machines.) A welding power source which Download)
Estimating &
Comparing Weld will produce a relatively small change in amperage despite
Metal Costs changes in voltage caused by a varying arc length. Used mostly
for welding with coated electrodes.
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
Constant Voltage — (As applied to welding machines.) A welding power source which Contents
will produce a relatively small change in voltage when the
Lesson 2 amperage is changed substantially. Used mostly for welding with
Common Electric
solid or flux cored electrodes.
Arc Welding
Processes
Direct Current — An electrical current which flows in only one direction in a
Go To Test
conductor. Direction of current is dependent upon the electrical
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes connections to the battery or other DC power source. Terminals on
for Welding Print
all DC devices are usually marked (+) or (-). Reversing the leads
Mild Steels
will reverse the direction of current flow.
Lesson 4 Electron — Negatively charged particles that revolve around the positively Glossary
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low charged nucleus in an atom.
Alloy Steels
Ferrous — Containing iron. Example: carbon steel, low alloy steels, stainless
Lesson 5 steel.
Hertz — Hertz (Hz) is the symbol which has replaced the term “cycles per
second.” Today, rather than saying 60 cycles per second or simply
Turn Pages
60 cycles, we say 60 Hertz or 60 Hz.
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals - High Alloy Steels — Steels containing in excess of 10% alloy content. Stainless steel is
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
considered a high alloy because it contains in excess of 10%
chromium.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon Induced Current or
Low Alloy Steels Induction — The phenomena of causing an electrical current to flow through a Search
Chapter
conductor when that conductor is subjected to a varying magnetic (Faster
field. Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes Ingot — Casting of steel (weighing up to 200 tons) formed at mill from melt
Search
of ore, scrap limestone, coke, etc.
Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating & Insulator — A material which has a tight electron bond, that is, relatively few
Comparing Weld electrons which will move when voltage (electrical pressure) is
Metal Costs
applied. Wood, glass, ceramics and most plastics are good
insulators.
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Welding Table of
Kilowatt — 1,000 watts Contents
Lesson 2 Low Alloy Steels — Steels containing small amounts of alloying elements (usually 1½%
Common Electric
to 5% total alloy content) which drastically improves their
Arc Welding
Processes properties.
Go To Test
Lesson 3 Non-Ferrous — Containing no iron. Example: Aluminum, copper, copper alloys.
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Print
Mild Steels
Ohm — Unit of electrical resistance to current flow.
Lesson 4 Glossary
Phase
Covered Electrodes
for Welding Low Transformation — The changes in the crystalline structure of metals caused by
Alloy Steels temperature and time.
Lesson 5 Proton — Positively charged particles which are part of the nucleus of atoms.
Rectifier — An electrical device used to change alternating current to direct
current.
Turn Pages
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy SAE — Society of Automotive Engineers
GMAW,GTAW,SAW
Transformer — An electrical device used to raise or lower the voltage and inversely
change the amperage.
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc
Electrodes Carbon Volt — Unit of electromotive force, or electrical pressure which causes
current to flow in an electrical circuit.
Chapter
(Faster
Watt — A unit of electrical power. Watts = Volts x Amperes Download)
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing
Electrodes
Search
Document
(Slower
Lesson 9 Download)
Estimating &
Comparing Weld
Metal Costs
Lesson 10
Filler Metals
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Lesson 1 - Basics of Arc Welding

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Lesson 1 - Basics of Arc Welding https://www.esabna.com/euweb/awtc/lesson1_1.

©COPYRIGHT 2000 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson 4 1.1 Source and Manufacturing............................................................. 1

© COPYRIGHT 1998 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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1.6.5 Reduction of Area ............................................................................. 11 Go To Test

© COPYRIGHT 1998 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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1.8.5 Transformers .................................................................................... 22 Go To Test

Appendix A Glossary of Terms ............................................................................. 29

© COPYRIGHT 1998 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

1 dari 1 08/02/2021 19:01

Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

1 dari 1 08/02/2021 19:01

Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

1 dari 1 08/02/2021 19:01

Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

1 dari 1 08/02/2021 19:01

Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

Lesson 10 phases in a weld.

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

DENDRITE INITIAL COMPLETE

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

Lesson 4 1.6 PROPERTIES OF METALS Glossary

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

Ultimate Stre ngth an increased load must be

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

FRACTURES CRACKS DEFORMS

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

Types of Indenters - Hardness Tests

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

© COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

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Lesson 1 LESSON I, PART A Current

1.7.3 Manganese - Manganese in contents up to 1% is usually present in all low alloy