WELDING PROCESSES

&
INSPECTION
CONTENTS

 Definition of welding.
 Types of welding processes &
applications.
 Welding procedures, parameters.
 WPS,PQR,WPQ

 Welding inspection & NDT

 Relevant standards and codes.

DEFINITION OF WELDING
• As per AWS,
“A localised coalescence of metals
or non-metals produced either by
heating the material to the
welding temperature,with or
without the application of
pressure,or by the application of
pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler metal”
TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES

 ARC WELDING  SOLID STATE WELDING

 SMAW  Diffusion welding
 GMAW  Explosion welding
 GTAW  Friction welding
 SAW  Forge welding
 FCAW  Hot pressure welding
 PAW  Roll welding
 Stud arc welding  Ultrasonic welding
 RESISTANCE WELDING  OTHER PROCESSES
 Flash welding  Electron beam welding
 Seam welding  Electroslag welding
 Spot welding  Induction welding
 Upset welding  Laser beam welding
 Percussion welding
 Thermit welding
WELDABILITY

• Weldability of a steel in terms of it’s

susceptibility to cracking can be roughly
estimated by using a carbon equivalent (CE).
• CE = % C + % Mn/6 + % Cr/5 + % Mo/4
• If CE is less than 0.45% the steel is
considered weldable.
• Weldability also depends on thickness
as it affects the cooling rate.
 SMAW

 SMAW(Shielded metal arc welding)

 Definition:“Heating the metal with an

electric arc between a covered metal
electrode and the metals to be joined.”
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Electrod
Arc e
Flux coating
Weld
joint Workpiec
e

‘V’ groove
SMAW

 ADVANTAGES
 Eqpt. is relatively simple
and inexpensive.
 New portable machines
are available.

 DISADVANTAGES
 Low speed.
 Removal of slag
 Proper storage of Low
hydrogen electrode.
 High material cost.
WELDING ELECTRODES

ELECTRODE DESIGNATION.
E X1 X2 X3 X4
E- Electrode
X1X2- Minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld metal in
thousands of PSI ( eg.70 means tensile strength of
deposited
weld is at least 70,000 psi)

X3- Position of electrode.1-All , 2-Flat & horz. Fillet welds,3-Flat,4-

Vertical-down welds

X4- Other characteristics like coating etc.Suffix (if any) – for low
alloy steels.
IN ELECTRODE E7018

 E- Electrode
 70- Tensile strength of the deposited weld
metals is at least 70,000 psi
 1- Electrode is suitable for use in all
position.
 8- Type of flux used (Basic iron powder
DC+ AC).
 FUNCTIONS OF COATING

Shielding :
 The coating decomposes to form gaseous shield for the
molten metal.
De-oxidation :
 the coating provides a fluxing action to remove oxygen &
other atmospheric gases
Alloying :
 The coating provides additional alloying elements for the
weld deposits Formation of slag on top of weld surface.
Arc stabilization:
 Stabilizes the arc.
LOW HYDROGEN ELECTRODES
 Electrodes ending with 5,6 or 8 are
classified as “low hydrogen electrodes”e.g
E7018 electrode.
 Contains less moisture(Less than 0.2%).
 Diffusible hydrogen is less than 10ml/100 g
of deposited metal.
 Stored in electric heater at a temperature of
150 deg C for 2 hours before welding.
 Presence of hydrogen can cause hydrogen
embrittlement & can lead to cracking in
weld.
 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
 Components- Constant current type power source, High
frequency unit ( HF unit),Tungsten electrode,
filler wire, inert gas.
 Applications-Welding thin metals(0.125 mm thick), food &
drug processing, petrochemical, aerospace,
power piping.

FILLER WIRE DESIGNATION.

ER XX S- X
 ER-Electrode rod
 XX-Minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld metal in
1000 psi.
 S- Solid wire.
 X-Chemical composition.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
GTAW
 Advantages of GTAW
 Welds of high quality and excellent visual
appearance.
 No slag after welding.
 Extremely thin sections can be welded.

 Disadvantages of GTAW:
 Slowest of all processes.
 Low tolerance for contamination.
 High level of skill is required.
 Tungsten inclusions.
 Electrode designation-ER70S2
ER- Electrode Wire
70- Tensile strength of deposited weld metal in 1000
PSI
S- Solid wire
2- Chemistry of electrode

EXAMPLE OF S.S. ELECTRODE

ER308, ER308L, ER309, ER310, ER316, ER316L

WELDING OF DISIMILAR METALS

C.S To S.S. ---- ER309

 HIGH FREQUENCY UNIT (HF)
 HF unit is required in GTAW process to initiate arc
between electrode and work piece without touching
the electrode.
 This eliminates contamination of tungsten electrode
and weld deposit.
 High frequency voltage at low current is
superimposed on the welding current to produce
arc.
 HF unit is switched off after initiation of arc in DC
welding.
 HF unit is continued after initiation of arc in AC
welding.
 ELECTRODES USED IN GTAW
 TIG welding electrodes usually contain small
quantities of other metallic oxides to obtain the
following benefits:
 Facilitate arc starting.
 Increase arc stability.
 Improve current carrying capacity of the
electrode.
 Reduce the risk of weld contamination.
 Increase electrode life.
 WELDING PARAMETERS
Welding Procedure Specification(WPS)
 Voltage  Pipe/plate
 Current  Filler metal spec.,class,F-
 Process type no.
 Current polarity  Gas flux,flow,purity.
 Weld position  Root/Filling/Final
 Progression  Pre-heat
 Backing  Interpass temperature
 Material specification, group no.
 Post weld heat treatment.
 Base metal thickness  Back purging
 Weld joint geometry  Travel speed
 Welder qualification.  Weld deposition technique.
BASE METAL PROPERTIES

 High thermal conductivity of base metal

requires more pre-heat and greater heat
input.
 High coefficient of thermal expansion will
affect the fit-up, required allowance for
distortion and shrinkage and the amount of
residual stress produced.
 If the difference between solidus and
liquidus temperature is high there are more
chances of cracking during solidification.
 Base metals having high hardness and low
yield strengths are more difficult to join.
WELDING POSITIONS – GROOVE

1G

3G

2G
4G
WELDING POSITIONS – GROOVE

1G 2G

5G 6G

45°
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION

 ASME Section IX requires each manufacturer and

contractor to develop welding procedures. Whereas
this requirement appears repetitious, qualified
welding procedure specifications are an important
aspect of fabrication quality control.
 The completed WPS for a welding process addresses
all essential, nonessential, and supplementary
essential variables when notch toughness is
required.
 WPS – ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

 The WPS should contain, as a code requirement, the

following information as a minimum:
 Process.
 Base metal.
 Filler metal (and/or flux).
 Welding current.
 Welding position.
 Shielding gas, if used.
 Preparation of base metal.
 Fitting and alignment.
 Backside of joint.
 Peening.
 Preheat.
 Post-Weld Heat Treatment.
 Welding Technique.
 PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD
• The PQR records the essential and nonessential
variables used to weld a test coupon, the coupon test
results, and the manufacturer’s certification of accuracy
in the qualification of a WPS.
• Record of the nonessential variables used during the
welding of the test coupon is optional.
• Section IX requires that the manufacturer or contractor
supervise the production of the test weldments and
certify that the PQR properly qualifies the welding
procedure, however, other groups may perform sample
preparation and testing.
 WELDING MATERIAL
• Welding materials refers to the many materials involved
in welding including the base metal, filler metal, fluxes,
and gases, if any. Each of these materials has an impact
on the WPS and the weldment properties.
• To reduce the number of welding procedure
qualifications required...
– Base metals are assigned P- numbers
– Electrodes and welding rods are assigned F - numbers
– steel and steel alloy filler metals are also grouped according to
their
A - numbers
WELDER QUALIFICATION
 Welder performance qualification is to establish the
welder’s ability to deposit sound weld metal.
 Similar to welding procedure qualification, this section
reflects the parameters in ASME Section IX.
 The WPQ addresses all essential variables listed in QW-350
of ASME Section IX.
 The performance qualification test coupon is to be welded
according to the qualified WPS, and the welding is
supervised and controlled by the employer of the welder.
 Each different welding process requires separate welder
qualification.
 A change in any essential variable listed for the welding
process requires the welder to re-qualify for that process.
 If welder is not doing welding job for last 6 months, gets
disqualified
 WELDING INSPECTION
• Welding Inspection is a critical part of an overall weld
quality assurance program. Welding inspection includes
much more than the just NDT of completed weld.
• Many other issues are important such as review of
– Specifications
– Joint design
– Cleaning Procedures
– WPS
– WPQ
• Above review will ensure the weldment performs properly in
service.
• There are three stages of welding inspection.
– Prior to welding,
– During welding,
– After completion of welding.
NDT TECHNIQUES
• The use of noninvasive techniques to determine the
integrity of Weld Joints. i.e. Inspect or measure
without doing harm.
• Commonly used NDT techniques for inspection of
Weld Joints:
– Visual Inspection (VT)

– Liquid Penetrant Inspection(LPT/DPT)

– Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPT)

– Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)

– X-ray / Radiography (RT)

VISUAL INSPECTION

• Most basic and common inspection method.

• Experience of the examiner is the most
important factor.
• Tools include fiberscope, boroscopes,
magnifying glasses and mirrors.
• Cost effective, relatively simple quality
control tool.
• Before, during and after welding.
• Reveals only the surface discontinuities
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
 Based on principle of ‘Capillary action.’
 Useful only for surface defects.
 Components-Dye, Cleaner, Developer.
 2 methods-Visible & Fluorescent.
 Fluorescent test is more sensitive than
visible one.
 Sensitivity depends on size of developer
particles, thickness of developed surface.
 Time consuming as compared to MPI.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
 A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics
is applied to the surface of the part and allowed
time to seep into surface breaking defects.
 The excess liquid is removed from the surface of
the part.
 A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on
the surface where it can be seen. Visual
inspection is the final step in the process.
 The penetrant used is often loaded with a
fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under
UV light to increase test sensitivity.
Crack Indications
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 For detecting surface & subsurface

discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials.
 2 methods-Circular magnetic field and
longitudinal magnetic field.
 Circular magnetic field-Head shot.
 Longitudinal magnetic field-Yoke, coil
shot.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
 The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles
coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the
specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic
flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an
indication directly over the discontinuity. This
indication can be visually detected under proper
lighting conditions.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

Longitudinal Magnetic

YOKE METHOD PROD METHOD

EXAMPLES

Visible Dry
Magnetic
Particle
Indications
EXAMPLES

Fluorescent
Wet
Magnetic
Particle
Indications
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
 Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT
method. Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that
are often cited include:
 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement

is superior to other NDT methods.

 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo

technique is used.
 It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and

estimating size and shape.

 Minimal part preparation required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in

addition to flaw detection.

 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
 As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also
has its limitations, which include:
 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer
of sound energy into test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to
inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to
inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.
 Ultrasonic Inspection
Weldments (Welded Joints)
 The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints
are porosity, slag inclusions, lack of side-wall fusion, lack
of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration,
undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks.
 Radiography
Radiography:
 Process of detecting the discontinuities in objects
by passing penetrating ionizing radiation through
them and recording the transmitted radiation
pattern on X ray Films.
 The test objects can be welded specimen, casting
or assemblies, etc.
 Radiography set up consists of: Radiation Source,
Test Objects, X ray Film between the pair of lead
screens enclosed in light proof cassette.
 RADIOGRAPHY
The radiation used in radiography
testing is a higher energy (shorter High Electrical Potential
wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we see as Electrons
visible light. The radiation can come + -
from an X-ray generator or a radioactive
source.
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
 Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying
metal. Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but
often appears as dark round or All porosity is a void in the
material it will have a radiographic density more than the
surrounding area.
 GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
 Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in
weld metal or between weld and base metal.
 In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld
or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
 Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration
(LOP) occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is
one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration
allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate.
 The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined,
straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the
weldment.
GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
 Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal.
 Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented
in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining
area.
GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
 Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in
a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray
beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks
can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
PRESSURE & LEAK TESTING

 Hydrostatic/ Pneumatic Pressure test is

carried out to check the tightness of the
system & these to be carried out as per
applicable code/ design condition.
RELEVANT CODES,STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS
 CODES
 Enforced by law, hence is mandatory.
 AWS CODES
 AWS D1.1-Structural welding code-Steel
 AWS D1.2-Structural welding code-Aluminum.
 AWS D1.3-Structural welding code-Sheet steel.
 AWS D1.4-Structural welding code-Reinforcing steel.
 AWS D1.5-Bridge welding code
 AWS D9.1-Sheet metal welding code.
 ASME CODES
 ASME Sec.II,part C-Specification for welding
rods,electrodes and filler metals.
 ASME Sec.IX-Welding and brazing qualifications.
 ASME Sec.VIII-Rules for construction of pressure vessels.
 ASME B 31.3 Process piping
THANK YOU
Have fun studying!