What’s a network

A network is a collection of devices interconnected by communication channels that

allow sharing of resources and information.
Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least
one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a
network.

A network provides two principle benefits:

1.The ability to communicate.
2.The ability to share  promote collaboration.
 Network Topology

• Network topology defines the structure of the network.

• Physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media (bus, token ring, star, etc.).

• Logical topology, which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts for sending data.

• The logical topology of a network is how the hosts communicate across the medium.

• The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) – 
In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source transfers its signals in
the allotted frequency range. 
Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted frequencies so this decreases the probability of
collision. The frequency spectrum is divided into several logical channels, in which every user feels
that they possess a particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously at the same
time allocating separate frequency bands or channels to each signal. It avoids interference between
two successive channels.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) – 

This happens when data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the source, and each signal
is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots are so small that all transmissions appear to be
parallel. In frequency division multiplexing all the signals operate at the same time with different
frequencies, but in time division multiplexing all the signals operate with same frequency at different
times. 
Synchronous TDM – 
The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. This slot is even given if the source is not ready with data
at this time. In this case, the slot is transmitted empty. It is used for multiplexing digitized voice
streams.

Asynchronous (or statistical) TDM – 

The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of the source or their ready state. It
dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input channel’s needs, thus saving the
channel capacity. 
Datagram Approach
--Each packet is treated independently
--Datagram is a term interchangeable with a packet,
--Each node chooses next node on the path using destination address,
--Packets with the same destination address may not follow the same route,
--Packets may arrive out of sequence and may be lost,
--It is up to the receiver to re-order the packets and recover the lost ones,
--No Call setup
Analogy: driving, asking directions
Packet Switching –Virtual Circuits
•A preplanned route is established before packets sent
•All packets of each virtual circuit use the same path
•Like a circuit in circuit-switching network
--Hence virtual circuit

•Each packet has virtual circuit identifier

--Nodes on the route know exactly where to circulate packets
--No routing decisions

•No dedicated path as in circuit switching

--A routing decision is required only when a virtual circuit is set up
--Packets are still buffered at node and queued for the output

•Packets should transit more rapidly

•If node fails, all virtual circuits through that node will be lost
End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners that provide services directly to the user.
Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together to allow them to
communicate

NIC (network interface card)

NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to
identify a network card uniquely.

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together.

When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through
cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the request
belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets to all connected
devices
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs.
Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming
message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub.
The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal network, and it allows connections
to systems like hubs or routers.
Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches.

A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection.
Routers are intelligent devices, and they store information about the networks they’re connected to.
A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
They serve as the outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.
(Routers can choose the best path between networks
Networks enable end users to share both information and hardware
resources:
Data and applications Applications requirements:
Physical resources Minimize time
Minimize the packet loss
Network storage (cloud storage,…)
Maximize data rate
Backup devices (Tape drives…) Etc.

Network-based Applications:
E-mail
Web browser
Instant messaging
Collaboration (wiki)
Database
Application classes:
Batch applications
Interactive applications
Real-time applications
Factors that determine throughput:
Internetworking devices
Type of data being transferred
Network topology
Number of users on the network
User computer
Server computer
Characteristics of a Network:
Speed (transmitted over the network. A more precise term would be data rate)
Cost
Security
Availability (Percentage availability : a year, availability is calculated by dividing the time it is actually
available by total time in a year, then *100)
Scalability a network is designed and optimized for just the current requirements, it can be very expensive and
difficult to meet new needs when the network grows.
Reliability (network. Reliability is often measured as a probability of failure, or mean time between failures
(MTBF).
Topology
What’s internet:

Slide 66 to slide 78
Protocol:
A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed.
Protocols define format, order of msgs sent and received among network entities, and actions taken on msg transmission,
receipt