 Epithelial cells are held together by a mutual

force of cohesion but in addition specialized

structural arrangements called

“CELL JUNCTIONS”
Are present
◦ Two factors are taken in account
◦ There are three functional types
 This may be in the form of a spot or limited extend
called a macula or it can pass around the entire cell
like belt or girdle called a zonula
◦ OCCLUDENS: Outer surfaces of two cell membranes
appear in contact or even fused
 Are located immediately beneath the luminal surface,
where they seal the intercellular spaces

◦ ADHERENS: The intercellular space is being about

20 to 25 nm wide

◦ GAP: shows a very narrow intercellular space of

about 3nm.
 This is the diffusion barrier and it is located at the
most apical point of adjoining epithelial cells.  It
forms a ring (zonula) or circumferential band
around the cells.
 It is a belt-like specialized zone.
 Adjacent membranes are fused at multiple levels

separated by short segments with membranes

closely apposed.
 EXAMPLES: intestinal mucosa, urinary bladder

mucosa
 This is a continuous band adhesion.  This structure
also surrounds the cell and adjoins to its neighbor.
 The membranes of adjacent cells are separated by

a distance of 20-25 nm.

 The cytoplasm immediately subjacent to the

membranes is relatively dense

 It is found among epithelial cells, fibroblasts,

smooth muscle cells etc

 This structure is a localized spot adhesion, as
opposed to a zonula adherens, and they are
located at multiple sites on the upper lateral
surface of adjoining cells/ perpendicular to the
basement membrane of the epithelium
 The adjacent membranes are separated by an

interspace of 25 nm.
 Bundles of tonofilaments converge upon and

terminate in dense plaques associated with the

cytoplasmic surface of the opposing membranes.
Figure 7:  Intercellular Junctions.  Taken from:  Wheater’s Functional Histology, a
text and colour atlas, p.88, Figure 5.10.
 THE COMBINATION OF

◦ ZONULA OCCLUDENS
+
◦ ZONULA ADHERENS
&
◦ DESMOSOMES

JUNCTIONAL COMPLEX
 A variant of the desmosome is found in certain
epithelial cells were abrasion and mechanical
shearing forces would tend to separate the
epithelium from the underlying connective tissue
(cornea, skin, esophagus and vagina).  In these
locations, only half a desmosome is present
– hemidesmosome.  They are found on the basal
surface where they provide increased adhesion to
the basal lamina.
 These are broad patches where adjacent plasma
membranes of adjacent cells are very closely
apposed leaving a narrow intervening gap
 2. The adjacent membranes are separated by an
interspace of 2 to 3 nm.
 3. Integral membrane proteins are tightly packed
in patches to form transmembrane channels or
pores which permit positively charged ions and
other small molecules (eg: nutrients & chemicals)
between adjacent cells
◦ Each pore consists of a small tubular structure called a
connexon, which traverses the intercellular gaps and
comprises a pair of grommet-like cylinders, one
penetrating each of the opposing cell membranes.
 EXAMPLES: in cardiac muscle, smooth muscle liver kidney thyroid skin
pancreas and nervous tissue
Figure 8:  Communicating Junctions.  Taken from:, Wheater’s Functional
Histology, a text and colour atlas, p.89, Figure 5.14.
Key: t.j. tight junction (occludens), 
a.b. adhesion belt (adherens),
 d.s. desmosome (spot), 
g.j. gap junction (communicating),
 h.d. hemidesmosome
The apical and basal surfaces of the epithelial cells
exhibit various specializations to carry out diversified
functions.
The specializations are as follows :-
 These are small slender finger like projections/
specializations found on free surface of epithelial
cells form a structure called the brush/ striated
border
 They are 0.5 to1.0 µm in length and about 0.1 µm
wide.
 (can not be seen under light microscope)
 They increase the luminal surface area several fold
(as much as 30 folds)and help in absorption.
 Each microvillus is stabilized by a core of actin
filaments.
 EXAMPLES: (They have upto 3000microvilli/cell)
◦ Epithelial cells of small intestine
◦ Epithelial cells of proximal convulated tubule (PCT) of
nephron
 Differ from microvilli only in their length and
flexibility. (visible with light microscopy)
 Average length 30µm
 These structures have a limited distribution,

occurring in the ductus deferens, epididymis, and

the inner ear.
 The interior of a stereocilium is filled with closely-

packed, longitudinally-oriented microfilaments.

 They are thought to facilitate absorptive processes

in the epididymis
◦ But the reason for their unusual form is not known
 These are minute motile/ hair like processes
that occur on epithelial cell which are specialized
for transport of fluid or mucus over the epithelial
surface
 They vary from 6 to 10 µm in length and 0.2 µm
in diameter
 Cilia are supported by an internal structure of
microtubules arranged parallel to their long axis.
The microtubules always possess the same
pattern: a central pair surrounded by nine
peripheral doublets.
 EXAMPLES: ( A single epithelial cell may have upto 300 cilia)
◦ cilia are found in the lining of the trachea (windpipe),
where they sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs.
◦ In female the beating of cilia in the Fallopian tubes
moves the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
 It is a tail-like / long, motile projection that
protrudes from the cell body
 The only human cell that possess flagellum is

sperm
 Average length is 55 µm
 Function is locomotion.
 Flagella serve for the propulsion of single
cells (e.g. swimming of protozoa and
spermatozoa), and motile cilia for the
transport of fluids (e.g. transport of mucus by
stationary ciliated cells in the trachea).