Cerebrum—Cortical Gray Matter

Cerebrum (Telencephalon)

Introduction
The cerebrum is the highest center in the brain. It perceives
sensations, commands skilled movements, provide awareness of
emotions and is necessary for memory, thinking, language
abilities and all other mental functions.
 There are right & left cerebral hemispheres separated by
longitudinal fissure & connected to one another across the
midline by corpus callosum.
 Largest part of the brain
 Tentorium cerebelli
separates the cerebral
hemispheres from the
cerebellum.

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 Outer gray matter and inner white matter
• Gyrus (Plural – gyri) and Sulcus (Plural –sulci) of
cerebral cortex:
• Sphere’ of cerebrum divided into right and left
symmetrical halves
 CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
• Gross Surface Features:
• Poles:frontal,occipital and temporal poles
• Surfaces:
1. Superolateral surface
2. Medial surface
3. Inferior surface
 Borders
• separate superolateral
surface from medial
surface and inferior
surface .
1. Superomedial border
2. Inferolateral border
3. Superciliary border
• separate medial surface from inferior surface.
• These borders together are known as
inferomedial border
4. Medial orbital border:
5. Hippocampal border
6. Medial occipital border
 Gyri and Sulci
• Lateral sulcus is also
called fissure of Sylvius.
• It is most prominent
sulcus recognized
between temporal pole
and orbital surface from
where it begins as stem.
• The lateral sulcus divides
both the frontal lobe and
parietal lobe above from
the temporal lobe below
 Central sulcus
• On the superomedial border 1 cm behind the
midpoint between frontal and occipital poles.
• It ends a little above posterior ramus of lateral
sulcus.
• The central sulcus is a prominent landmark of the
brain, separating the parietal lobe from the frontal
lobe and the primary motor cortex from the primary
somatosensory cortex.
 3. Parietooccipital sulcus

• This sulcus is present on

the medial surface of
cerebral hemisphere.
• It ends by joining the
junction of calcarine
sulcus and postcalcarine
sulcus .
• It may extend on the
superolateral surface
 4. Calcarine and postcalcarine sulcus

• medial surface of cerebral hemisphere.

• Calcarine sulcus starts a little behind and below the posterior
end of corpus callosum .
• continued as postcalcarine sulcus, where it is joined by
parietooccipital sulcus.
• Postcalcarine sulcus ends at occipital pole and extends slightly
on superolateral surface.
• calcarine sulcus is where the primary visual cortex (V1) is
concentrated.
• The central visual field is located in the posterior portion of the
calcarine sulcus and the peripheral visual field in the anterior
portion.
 Types of sulcus
1. Primary sulcus : majority of sulci, embryonic, increase
the surface area of the cerebral cortex.
2. Secondary sulcus :
rotational growth of cerebral hemisphere around it.
Example is lateral sulcus
3. Complete sulcus : extend through whole thickness of
cerebral cortex and medulla to up to the wall of the cavity
(ventricle) . Example is calcarine sulcus and collateral
sulcus.
4. Limiting sulcus : separates two different areas in its two
walls which are different functionally as well as structurally.
• Example is central sulcus on superolateral surface which
separates motor area (in front) and sensory area (behind).
5. Axial sulcus : By nature it is just opposite to limiting
sulcus. . Example is postcalcarine sulcus whose both
walls are primary visual area.
6. Operculated sulcus:
This is the sulcus where the two lips are two
functional areas and both the walls are lined by third
functional areas. Example is lunate sulcus which is a
small semilunar sulcus present just in front of the
occipital pole on superolateral surface with concavity
backward.
 Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere

• Each of the cerebral hemisphere is divided into fivelobes as

i) Frontal lobe,
ii) Parietal lobe,
iii) Occipital lobe,
iv) Temporal lobe and
v) Central lobe.
• The first four lobes are incompletely separated from each other
by 3 important sulci and two imaginary lines on superolateral
surface of cerebral hemisphere.
• The central lobe is submerged at the bottom (floor) of stem of
lateral sulcus.
• The four lobes outlined on superolateral surface
are following:
1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Occipital lobe
4. Temporal lobe.
 Sulci and gyri on three surfaces of cerebral
hemisphere
• Superolateral surface
• Frontal lobe
1. Precentral gyrus:
front and parallel to
central sulcus which
limits frontal lobe from
parietal lobe. Precentral
gyrus is bounded in
front by precentral
sulcus.
Parietal lobe
1. Postcentral gyrus
2. Superior and inferior parietal
lobule
Occipital lobe
1. Occipital pole
2. Upper and lower occipital
lobules
Temporal lobe
1. Superior, middle and inferior
temporal gyri
2. Transverse temporal gyri
 Structures Other than Cortical Gyri

1. Corpus callosum
• a ‘C’ shaped compact band of
white matter (fibers)
• center of medial surface of
cerebral hemisphere.
• Fibers passing through all the
parts of corpus
• callosum cross the midline and
connect identical cortical areas
of all the parts of both cerebral
hemispheres.
• This is an example of
commissural fibers.
2. Fornix:
• white band of fibers Below
the middle of corpus
callosum upto rostral end
of corpus callosum.
• Fibers in the fornix
connect different areas of
same cerebral hemisphere
and is an example of
association fibers.
3. Septum pellucidum
a thin bilaminar
membrane bridging
between fornix and
anterior part of corpus
callosum.
Lateral to this septum
lies the cavity of cerebral
hemisphere called
lateral ventricle of brain.
4. Thalamus:
• Below posterior part of corpus callosum
and behind fornix,
• medial surface of thalamus of both cerebral
hemispheres forms lateral boundary of third
ventricle of brain (cavity of diencephalon).
• Thalamus is continuous with hypothalamus
below and in front, and with subthalamus
below and behind.
5. Anterior commissure
small cross section of compact bundle of
commissural fibers which is situated in
front of anterior end (anterior column)of
fornix
 Gyri and Sulci on Medial Surface

1. Cingulate gyrus:
a thick curved gyrus
with convexity It is
separated from corpus
callosum by callosal
sulcus.
• Cingulate gyrus is
demarcated above by
cingulate sulcus.
2. Lingual gyrus:
It is a curved gyrus with
convexity upwards like that of
tongue, situated on lower part of
medial surface of occipital pole. It
is bounded above calcarine and
postcalarine sulci.
3. Cuneus:
It is a triangular area of cortex
bounded b parietooccipital sulcus
and postcalcarine sulcus.
• It is situated above posterior end
of lingual gyrus.
4-Precuneus:
It is the quadrangular area in
front of cuneus. It is bounded
behind by parietooccipital
sulcus and in front by posterior
limb of curved upturned end of
cingulate sulcus. Inferiorly it is
demarcated from posterior end
of cingulate gyrus by
superosplenial sulcus which is
a small curved sulcus
posterosuperior to corpus
callosum.
5. Paracentral lobule:
• another quadrangular
cortical area in front of
precuneus.
6. Medial frontal gyrus:
• the wide, flat and curved
gyrus on medial surface
of frontal lobe
• starting in front of
paracentral lobule
• Gyri and Sulci on Inferior Surface
• These are divided into two parts—
• Gyri and sulci on inferior surfaces of occipital
and temporal lobes (tentorial surface).
 TENTORIAL SURFACE (FROM MEDIAL TO
LATERAL
1. Parahippocampal gyrus:
• It is anterior continuation of lingual gyrus extending from
medial surface to inferior surface of temporal lobe.
• This gyrus is demarcated laterally by collateral sulcus.
• Parahippocampal gyrus presents anteriorly a hook-like
ending known as uncus which is bounded outwards by a
small curved sulcus called rhinal sulcus.
2. Medial and lateral temporooccipital gyri:
• As the name suggests, these two gyri extend
anteroposteriorly and parallel to each other from
temporal lobe to occipital lobe. These two gyri are
separated from each other by the sulcus known as
temporooccipital sulcus.
• Medial of the two gyri is separated from
parahippocampal gyrus by collateral sulcus.
 ORBITAL SURFACE

1. Gyrus rectus:
• It is a thin and narrow anteroposteriorly running
straight gyrus just lateral to medial border of orbital
surface.
• It is laterally bounded by an anteroposterior sulcus
called olfactory sulcus.
• It is so called because it lodges olfactory tract with
its anterior rounded end called olfactory bulb.
2. Orbital gyri:
• They are four in number present lateral to olfactory
suclus. They are named as per their interrelationship
—anterior, posterior, medial and lateral.
• These four orbital gyri are separated from each other
by a ‘H’–shaped orbital sulci.
 Structural composition
• Cerebral cortex is made up of –
i. Neurons and ii. Neuroglia.

4. Gross functions:
both motor commands and sensory responses, cerebral cortex
posseses influence over opposite half of body.
• Basic functions of cerebral cortex are as follows:
i. Perception of various sensations.
ii. Reaction or response as per perception of sensation.
iii. To send motor commands to opposite half of body.
iv. Various types of higher functions for mental activities, e.g.
memory, intelligence, learning, creative thinking, etc.
TYPES OF NEURONS IN CEREBRAL CORTEX
 LAYER OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
1. Molecular or plexiform layer:
• It is made up of mainly reticulum or network of nerve
fibers with intermingling horizontal cells of Cajal.
2. External granular layer:
• granule cells or stellate cells.
• cells are densely packed.
• There is intermingling of minimum number of fibers.
3. External pyramidal layer:
small and medium size of pyramidal cell.
• Size of the pyramidal cells gradually increase from
superficial to deeper plane.
4. Internal granular layer:
• closely packed granule cells or stellate cells.
• striated appearance
• Example of this type of cortex is visual cortex on
either lip of postcalcarine sulcus.
5. Internal pyramidal layer (ganglionic layer):
• large pyramidal cells of Betz.
• Axon of this cells form corticospinal tract
6. Multiform layer or polymorphic cell layer:
i. It presents neurons of different types, size and shape.
ii. Cells of this layer are intermingled with nerve fibers.
iii. This cellular layer merges with white matter deep to it.
• In heterotypical cortex, all the six layers are not
equall defined.
• two main varieties of this cortex are as follows:
i. Granular cortex: In this type, granule cell layer is
well-defined and pyramidal cell layer is poorly
developed. Example is sensory cortex.
ii. Agranular cortex: This cortex shows poor
development of granule cell layer with well-defined
pyramidal cell layer. Example is motor cortex.
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX

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Brodmann areas
and their functions

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 Frontal lobe

▪ Primary motor area (area 4 of Brodmann) - precentral

gyrus; voluntary skilled movements /Initiates conscious
motor control
Lesion – contralateral paralysis and paresis
▪ Premotor area (area 6) – anterior part of precentral gyrus;
contains programming necessary for movement

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 Focal lesion – apraxia, inability to perform purposive
movement even though no paralysis exists.
▪ Prefrontal cortex - Planning, emotion, judgment,
behavior.
▪ Broca’s speech area - Dominant hemisphere
motor speech area is usually the left hemisphere;
speech production and articulation.

(Association areas are those responsible for

interconnecting the various sensory and motor areas
by means of association fibers)
 Frontal lobe (Cont. )
 Lesion of Broca’s speech area – expressive aphasia
characterized as nonfluent, hesitant and poor articulation,
short sentences.
 Person knows what to say but cannot speak .
 Broaca area has an important fiber link with the Wernicke’s
area.
 Lesion to link – conduction aphasia; similar to receptive
aphasia

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Frontal eye field (area 8) - control conjugate
movement of the eye
Lesion - unilateral damage causes deviation of the
eyes towards the side of lesion
▪ Olfactory area (smell)- Orbital gyrus
Lesion – inability to discrimanate odors
 Parietal lobe
▪ Primary somatosensory (area 3,1,2); post central gyrus
▪ Secondary somatosensory- interpretation of the general
sensory information
▪ Superior parietal lobule – interpretation of sensory
information
& for conscious awareness of contralateral half of the body
Lesions - impair the interpretation & understanding of
sensory
input and neglect of contralateral side of the body; loss in
the
ability to recognize an object held in the hand if the eyes are
closed.

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Neglect syndrome – Fails to recognize the opposite side
of the
body and surroundings.
▪ Inferior parietal lobule interrelates between
somatosensory cortex and the visual and auditory
association cortices.
In dorminant hemisphere contributes to language
function.
▪ Gustatory area (taste) - junctional region of the
postcentral gyrus and insula
Lesion – impairment of taste to contralateral side of
tongue.
The body is representad on the motor and sensory cortex as an
inverted person,called the motor and sensory homunculus

Sensory homunculus Motor homunculus

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Functional areas of the brain

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Temporal lobe
Motor association Primary
cortex Somatosensory
▪ Primary auditory cortex, area cortex
Primary
41&42, transverse temporal gyri motor cortex
Sensory
in the inf. wall of lat. sulcus
Lesion - unilateral lesion results asso.
area
in no significant hearing loss Prefrontal
cortex
because of the bilateralism of
the auditory pathways.
▪ Memory / learning areas
▪ Wernicke’s area (Accessory
auditory cortex, area 22) -
sensory or receptive speech
area Speech comprehension area;
permits understanding written & Broca's
area Visual
spoken languages. Wernicke's asso. area
area
Auditory Visual cortex
cortex 64
Temporal lobe (Cont.)
Lesion of Wernicke’s area - receptive or fluent aphasia,
able to speak but meaningless, can not comprehend
language (faulty understanding) in any form - heard,
read or spoken ie. both the auditory and visual
compehension are lost.
Language areas of the cerebral hemisphere
▪ Broca’s area
▪ Wernicke’s area
▪ Angular gyrus and supramarginal gyrus of the inferior
parietal lobule

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Occipital lobe
▪ Primary visual cortex (area 17); occupies the gyri above
and
below the calcarine sulcus for visual perception
▪ Secondary visual cortex ( ares 18, 19) – visual
interpretation
Calcarine Sulcus - nerve fibers conveying visual
impulses end in
the cortex of its walls. This cortex can be recognised by its
linear
appearance and is termed the striate cortex.
Parietal-occipital
sulcus

Cuneus
Calcarine sulcus

Lingual gyrus 66
Language Centers

Supramarginal
gyrus

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edial saggital section of the cerebral hemisphere Limbic lobe

The portions of the

frontal, parietal &
temporal lobes on the
medial surface
form the limbic lobe
that are involved with
emotional states and
memory.
Uncus Parahippocampal
gyrus Comprised of:
Cingulate gyrus cingulate gyrus,
eptum Fornix
parahippocampal
gyrus,hippocampus,
factory
Location of amygdala,
ulb major limbic mammillary bodies,
system uncus and other small
structures portions of the
ypothalamus
adjacent cortex.
Amygdala
Mammillary Hippocampus
bodies 68
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