Chap 1 - Introduction To Statistics

Chapter 1
Introduction to
Statistics
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1 of 61
All rights reserved.
Chapter Outline
• 1.1 An Overview of Statistics
• 1.2 Data Classification
• 1.3 Experimental Design
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 of 61

Section 1.1
An Overview of Statistics

Section 1.1 Objectives
• Define statistics
• Distinguish between a population and a sample
• Distinguish between a parameter and a statistic
• Distinguish between descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics

What is Data?
Data
Consist of information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or
responses.
• “People who eat three daily servings of whole grains

have been shown to reduce their risk of…stroke by
37%.” (Source: Whole Grains Council)
• “Seventy percent of the 1500 U.S. spinal cord
injuries to minors result from vehicle accidents, and
68 percent were not wearing a seatbelt.” (Source: UPI)

What is Statistics?
Statistics
The science of collecting,
organizing, analyzing, and
interpreting data in order to
make decisions.

Data Sets
Population
The collection of all outcomes,
responses, measurements, or
counts that are of interest.
Sample
A subset of the population.

Example: Identifying Data Sets
In a recent survey, 1500 adults in the United States were

asked if they thought there was solid evidence for
global warming. Eight hundred fifty-five of the adults
said yes. Identify the population and the sample.
Describe the data set. (Adapted from: Pew Research Center)

Solution: Identifying Data Sets
• The population consists of the
responses of all adults in the U.S.
• The sample consists of the
Responses of adults in
responses of the 1500 adults in the the U.S. (population)
U.S. in the survey. Responses of
• The sample is a subset of the adults in survey
(sample)
responses of all adults in the U.S.
• The data set consists of 855 yes’s
and 645 no’s.

Parameter and Statistic
Parameter
A number that describes a population
characteristic.
Average age of all people in the United States
Statistic
A number that describes a sample
characteristic.
Average age of people from a sample
of three states
Example: Distinguish Parameter and Statistic
Decide whether the numerical value describes a
population parameter or a sample statistic.
1. A recent survey of a sample of college

career centers reported that the average
starting salary for petroleum
engineering majors is $83,121. (Source:
National Association of Colleges and
Employers)
Solution:
Sample statistic (the average of $83,121 is based
on a subset of the population)

Example: Distinguish Parameter and Statistic
Decide whether the numerical value describes a
population parameter or a sample statistic.
2. The 2182 students who accepted

admission offers to Northwestern
University in 2009 have an average
SAT score of 1442. (Source: Northwestern
University)
Solution:
Population parameter (the SAT score of 1442 is
based on all the students who accepted admission
offers in 2009)
Branches of Statistics
Descriptive Inferential Statistics
Statistics Involves Involves using sample
organizing, data to draw
summarizing, and conclusions about a
displaying data. population.
e.g. Tables, charts,

averages

Example: Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
Decide which part of the study represents the
descriptive branch of statistics. What conclusions might
be drawn from the study using inferential statistics?
A large sample of men, aged 48,
was studied for 18 years. For
unmarried men, approximately
70% were alive at age 65. For
married men, 90% were alive at
age 65. (Source: The Journal of
Family Issues)

Solution: Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
Descriptive statistics involves statements such as “For unmarried
men, approximately 70% were alive at age 65” and “For married
men, 90% were alive at 65.”
A possible inference drawn from the study is that being married

is associated with a longer life for men.

Section 1.1 Summary
• Defined statistics
• Distinguished between a population and a sample
• Distinguished between a parameter and a statistic
• Distinguished between descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics

Section 1.2
Data Classification

• Distinguish between qualitative data and quantitative

data
• Classify data with respect to the four levels of
measurement

Types of Data
Qualitative Data
Consists of attributes, labels, or nonnumerical entries.
Major Place of birth Eye color

Types of Data
Quantitative data
Numerical measurements or counts.
Age Weight of a letter Temperature

Example: Classifying Data by Type
The suggested retail prices of several vehicles are

shown in the table. Which data are qualitative data and
which are quantitative data? (Source Ford Motor Company)

Solution: Classifying Data by Type
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

(Names of vehicle (Suggested retail prices
models are nonnumerical of vehicle models are
entries) numerical entries)
Levels of Measurement
Nominal level of measurement

• Qualitative data only
• Categorized using names, labels, or qualities
• No mathematical computations can be made
Ordinal level of measurement

• Qualitative or quantitative data
• Data can be arranged in order
• Differences between data entries is not meaningful

Example: Classifying Data by Level
Two data sets are shown. Which data set consists of data
at the nominal level? Which data set consists of data at
the ordinal level? (Source: Nielsen Media Research)

Solution: Classifying Data by Level
Ordinal level (lists the Nominal level (lists the

ranks of five TV programs. call letters of each network
Data can be ordered. affiliate. Call letters are
Difference between ranks names of network
is not meaningful.) affiliates.)

Interval level of measurement

• Quantitative data
• Data can be ordered
• Differences between data entries are meaningful
• Zero represents a position on a scale (not an inherent
zero – zero does not imply “none”)

Ratio level of measurement

• Similar to interval level
• Zero entry is an inherent zero (implies “none”)
• A ratio of two data values can be formed
• One data value can be meaningfully expressed as a
multiple of another

Example: Classifying Data by Level
Two data sets are shown. Which data set consists of data
at the interval level? Which data set consists of data at
the ratio level? (Source: Major League Baseball)

Solution: Classifying Data by Level
Interval level (Quantitative

data. Can find a difference
between two dates, but a
ratio does not make sense.)
Ratio level (Can find
differences and write
ratios.)
Summary of Four Levels of Measurement
Put data Arrange Subtract Determine if one

Level of in data in data data value is a
Measurement categories order values multiple of another
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

Section 1.2 Summary
• Distinguished between qualitative data and

quantitative data
• Classified data with respect to the four levels of
measurement

Section 1.3
Experimental Design

• Discuss how to design a statistical study

• Discuss data collection techniques
• Discuss how to design an experiment
• Discuss sampling techniques

Designing a Statistical Study
1. Identify the variable(s) 3. Collect the data.

of interest (the focus) 4. Describe the data using
and the population of descriptive statistics
the study. techniques.
2. Develop a detailed plan 5. Interpret the data and
for collecting data. If make decisions about
you use a sample, make the population using
sure the sample is inferential statistics.
representative of the 6. Identify any possible
population. errors.

Data Collection
Observational study
• A researcher observes and measures characteristics of
interest of part of a population.
• Researchers observed and recorded the mouthing

behavior on nonfood objects of children up to three
years old. (Source: Pediatric Magazine)

Data Collection
Experiment
• A treatment is applied to part of a population and
responses are observed.
• An experiment was performed in which diabetics took

cinnamon extract daily while a control group took
none. After 40 days, the diabetics who had the
cinnamon reduced their risk of heart disease while the
control group experienced no change. (Source: Diabetes
Care)

Data Collection
Simulation
• Uses a mathematical or physical model to reproduce
the conditions of a situation or process.
• Often involves the use of computers.
• Automobile manufacturers use simulations with

dummies to study the effects of crashes on humans.

Data Collection
Survey
• An investigation of one or more characteristics of a
population.
• Commonly done by interview, mail, or telephone.
• A survey is conducted on a sample of female

physicians to determine whether the primary reason
for their career choice is financial stability.

Example: Methods of Data Collection
Consider the following statistical studies. Which

method of data collection would you use to collect data
for each study?
1. A study of the effect of changing flight patterns on
the number of airplane accidents.
Solution:
Simulation (It is impractical to
create this situation)

2. A study of the effect of eating oatmeal on lowering

blood pressure.
Solution:
Experiment (Measure the effect
of a treatment – eating oatmeal)

3. A study of how fourth grade students solve a puzzle.
Solution:
Observational study (observe
and measure certain
characteristics of part of a
population)

4. A study of U.S. residents’ approval rating of the U.S.

president.
Solution:
Survey (Ask “Do you approve
of the way the president is
handling his job?”)

Key Elements of Experimental Design
• Control
• Randomization
• Replication

Key Elements of Experimental Design:
Control
• Control for effects other than the one being measured.
• Confounding variables
 Occurs when an experimenter cannot tell the difference
between the effects of different factors on a variable.
 A coffee shop owner remodels her shop at the same
time a nearby mall has its grand opening. If business at
the coffee shop increases, it cannot be determined
whether it is because of the remodeling or the new
mall.

Control
• Placebo effect
 A subject reacts favorably to a placebo when in fact
he or she has been given no medical treatment at all.
 Blinding is a technique where the subject does not
know whether he or she is receiving a treatment or a
placebo.
 Double-blind experiment neither the subject nor the
experimenter knows if the subject is receiving a
treatment or a placebo.

Randomization
• Randomization is a process of randomly assigning
subjects to different treatment groups.
• Completely randomized design
 Subjects are assigned to different treatment groups
through random selection.
• Randomized block design
 Divide subjects with similar characteristics into
blocks, and then within each block, randomly
assign subjects to treatment groups.

Randomization
Randomized block design
• An experimenter testing the effects of a new weight
loss drink may first divide the subjects into age
categories. Then within each age group, randomly
assign subjects to either the treatment group or
control group.

Randomization
• Matched Pairs Design
 Subjects are paired up according to a similarity.
One subject in the pair is randomly selected to
receive one treatment while the other subject
receives a different treatment.

Replication
• Replication is the repetition of an experiment using a
large group of subjects.
• To test a vaccine against a strain of influenza, 10,000

people are given the vaccine and another 10,000
people are given a placebo. Because of the sample
size, the effectiveness of the vaccine would most
likely be observed.

Example: Experimental Design
A company wants to test the effectiveness of a new gum
developed to help people quit smoking. Identify a potential
problem with the given experimental design and suggest a
way to improve it.
The company identifies one thousand adults who are heavy

smokers. The subjects are divided into blocks according to
gender. Females are given the new gum and males are
given the placebo. After two months, the female group has
a significant number of subjects who have quit smoking.

Solution: Experimental Design
Problem:
The groups are not similar. The new gum may have a
greater effect on women than men, or vice versa.
Correction:
The subjects can be divided into blocks according to
gender, but then within each block, they must be
randomly assigned to be in the treatment group or the
control group.

Sampling Techniques
Simple Random Sample

Every possible sample of the same size has the same chance of being
selected.
x
x x xxxxx x xx x x x
x
x xx x xx x x x xx x xx xx x
x x x x x xx x x x
x x xx x x x
x xx x x x
x xx x x x xxxxx x x xx x x x x x xx xx
x x x xx x x x x x x x xx
x
x xx
x xx x xx xx

Simple Random Sample
• Random numbers can be generated by a random

number table, a software program or a calculator.
• Assign a number to each member of the population.
• Members of the population that correspond to these
numbers become members of the sample.

Example: Simple Random Sample
There are 731 students currently enrolled in statistics at

your school. You wish to form a sample of eight
students to answer some survey questions. Select the
students who will belong to the simple random sample.
• Assign numbers 1 to 731 to the students taking

statistics.
• On the table of random numbers, choose a
starting place at random (suppose you start in
the third row, second column.)

Solution: Simple Random Sample
• Read the digits in groups of three

• Ignore numbers greater than 731
The students assigned numbers 719, 662, 650, 4,

53, 589, 403, and 129 would make up the sample.
Other Sampling Techniques
Stratified Sample
• Divide a population into groups (strata) and select a
random sample from each group.
• To collect a stratified sample of the number of people
who live in West Ridge County households, you could
divide the households into socioeconomic levels and
then randomly select households from each level.

Cluster Sample
• Divide the population into groups (clusters) and
select all of the members in one or more, but not
all, of the clusters.
• In the West Ridge County example you could divide
the households into clusters according to zip codes,
then select all the households in one or more, but
not all, zip codes.

Systematic Sample
• Choose a starting value at random. Then choose
every kth member of the population.
• In the West Ridge County example you could assign

a different number to each household, randomly
choose a starting number, then select every 100th
household.

Example: Identifying Sampling Techniques
You are doing a study to determine the opinion of
students at your school regarding stem cell research.
Identify the sampling technique used.
1. You divide the student population with respect

to majors and randomly select and question
some students in each major.
Solution:
Stratified sampling (the students are divided into
strata (majors) and a sample is selected from each
major)
Example: Identifying Sampling Techniques
2. You assign each student a number and generate

random numbers. You then question each student
whose number is randomly selected.
Solution:
Simple random sample (each sample of the same
size has an equal chance of being selected and
each student has an equal chance of being
selected.)

Section 1.3 Summary
• Discussed how to design a statistical study

• Discussed data collection techniques
• Discussed how to design an experiment
• Discussed sampling techniques

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Chapter 1

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

• 1.1 An Overview of Statistics

• 1.2 Data Classification

• 1.3 Experimental Design

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 of 61

• “People who eat three daily servings of whole grains

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 of 61

In a recent survey, 1500 adults in the United States were

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 of 61

1. A recent survey of a sample of college

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 of 61

2. The 2182 students who accepted

e.g. Tables, charts,

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 14 of 61

A possible inference drawn from the study is that being married

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 16 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 of 61

• Distinguish between qualitative data and quantitative

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 of 61

Major Place of birth Eye color

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 of 61

Age Weight of a letter Temperature

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 of 61

The suggested retail prices of several vehicles are

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 21 of 61

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Nominal level of measurement

Ordinal level of measurement

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 of 61

Ordinal level (lists the Nominal level (lists the

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 of 61

Interval level of measurement

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 of 61

Ratio level of measurement

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 of 61

Interval level (Quantitative

Put data Arrange Subtract Determine if one

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 of 61

• Distinguished between qualitative data and

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 31 of 61

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 32 of 61

• Discuss how to design a statistical study

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 33 of 61

1. Identify the variable(s) 3. Collect the data.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 34 of 61

• Researchers observed and recorded the mouthing

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 35 of 61

• An experiment was performed in which diabetics took

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 36 of 61

• Automobile manufacturers use simulations with

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 37 of 61

• A survey is conducted on a sample of female

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 38 of 61