DEBRIEFING

1) PARTICULATES
a) conveyors
b) computation of power
c) crushing / grinding machines
2) THERMODYNAMICS
a) POWER CYCLES
3) HEAT TRANSFER
a) forced convection
b) heat exchangers
 PARTICULATES
TYPE OF DEFINITION HANDBOOK
CONVEYORS
1) Gravity gravity, non-powered conveyor, is typically used in
conveyor truck off loading, package sorting, and assembly or
kitting areas. Gravity is the cheapest form of
conveyor but lacks in product control
2) Screw conveyor mechanism that uses a rotating helical screw blade, called p. 12-43
a "flighting", usually within a tube, to move liquid or
granular materials.

3) Flight & apron pushes materials through a sealed trough. This equipment
is used specifically with loose materials that may be wet,
conveyor sticky, or clumpy, such as grain, unprocessed rock, or
silage.

4) Belt conveyor Used in package handling, raw material handling, and

small part handling. It is effectively used for elevation
change or incline/decline applications. A more common
application of belt conveyor you might not notice is in the
check-out line at your local grocery store

5) Bucket are the most used systems for vertical transport of bulk,
dry, wet and even liquid materials.
elevators
 PARTICULATES: Unit Loads
The term unit loads is generally used to cover the handling of boxes, bags,
packaged materials, castings, paper rolls and in general integrated items
as distinguished from pulverized, granular and lumpy bulk material.

TYPES OF UNIT LOADS

1) SPIRAL CHUTE
The simplest
method and
lowest cost
when a direct
lowering of
packaged or
boxed materials
are involved.
Chute Conveyor
Roller Conveyor
 PARTICULATES: Unit Loads
The term unit loads is generally used to cover the handling of boxes, bags,
packaged materials, castings, paper rolls and in general integrated items
as distinguished from pulverized, granular and lumpy bulk material.

TYPES OF UNIT LOADS

2) ROLLER CONVEYORS
a) GRAVITY
CONVEYOR
Best adapted for
boxes or cartons with
unyielding riding faces,
approximate
uniformity on weight
and not over 100 lb
each.
Gravity Roller Conveyor
 PARTICULATES: Unit Loads
The term unit loads is generally used to cover the handling of boxes, bags,
packaged materials, castings, paper rolls and in general integrated items
as distinguished from pulverized, granular and lumpy bulk material.

TYPES OF UNIT LOADS

2) ROLLER CONVEYORS
b) PALLET CHAIN
CONVEYOR
A rotating disc
which , with guide
plates, serves to
shift bottles from the
approach line to the
reverse line.
 PARTICULATES: Unit Loads
The term unit loads is generally used to cover the handling of boxes, bags,
packaged materials, castings, paper rolls and in general integrated items
as distinguished from pulverized, granular and lumpy bulk material.

TYPES OF UNIT LOADS

3) Overhead Trams
(Tramrail)
Tramrail or monorail
system, consists of a
carrier suspended from
an overhead L-beam
track or runway usually
suspended from the
ceiling beams except in
the larger units wherein
it is supported below.
 PARTICULATES: Unit Loads
The term unit loads is generally used to cover the handling of boxes, bags,
packaged materials, castings, paper rolls and in general integrated items
as distinguished from pulverized, granular and lumpy bulk material.

TYPES OF UNIT LOADS

 PARTICULATES: Unit Loads
The term unit loads is generally used to cover the handling of boxes, bags,
packaged materials, castings, paper rolls and in general integrated items
as distinguished from pulverized, granular and lumpy bulk material.

TYPES OF UNIT LOADS

4) BELT CONVEYORS
For unit loads, it may
be similar to the
standard flat-belt
conveyor, but with
closely spaced carrying
idler rolls. Almost any
type of unit load, not
destructive to the belt,
may be handled.
Magnetic Belt Conveyor
Troughed Belt Conveyor
PARTICULATES: Flight Conveyors
-flight conveyors may be used up to 45 degrees, but
preferably the incline should be limited to 30 0
Slat Conveyor
 PARTICULATES: Flight Conveyors
TYPES OF FLIGHT CONVEYORS:
 PARTICULATES: Flight Conveyors
TYPES OF FLIGHT CONVEYORS:
 PARTICULATES: Flight Conveyors
TYPES OF FLIGHT CONVEYORS:
 PARTICULATES: Flight Conveyors
TYPES OF FLIGHT CONVEYORS:
PARTICULATES: Apron Conveyors
 PARTICULATES: Flight Conveyors
PARAMETER SYMBOL UNIT
Capacity T Tons/h
Width of flight B Inches
Depth of flight D Inches
Speed of conveyor S ft/min (fpm)
Bulk density of material b lbm/ft3
The capacity (in tons/h) of the flight conveyor of 10 by 24 inches
travelling at 100 fpm and handling the crushed limestone is?
a) 300 b) 350 c) 400 d) 450
Screw Conveyor
 PARTICULATES: Screw Conveyor

What is the horsepower

PARAMETER SYMBOL UNIT
requirement of a 45 foot
Capacity Q lb/min length screw conveyor
Power hp horsepower which will handle 20 tons
per hour of a material
Length L ft
with average density of
Coefficient Ash = 4 dimensionless 50 lb/ft3?
Coal = 2.5 a) 3.94 c) 6.82
b) 5.24 d) 7.50
Grain = 1.3
Bucket Conveyor
PARTICULATES: Bucket Elevators
PARTICULATES: Bucket Elevators

PARAMETER UNIT
Capacity Ton/h
Power kilowatt
Length meter
 PARTICULATES: Bucket Elevators
PARAMETER UNIT
Capacity Ton/h
Power kilowatt
Length meter
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the horsepower requirement for a continuous bucket elevator
with loading leg which will lift solids at a rate of 50 tons per hour
at a vertical distance of 22 ft.
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
 THERMODYNAMICS:
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

1st Law of Thermodynamics

 THERMODYNAMICS:
1st Law of Thermodynamics

Work done by the system = “-”

Work done on the system = “+”
 THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. ADDING HEAT
Five thousand joules of heat are added to a closed system,
which then does 3000 joules of work. What is the net
change in the internal energy of the system?

2. EXPANDING GAS
A gas is expanded at atmospheric pressure. The volume of
the gas was 5 x 10-6 m3. The volume of the gas is now 5 x 10-3
m3 . How much work is done in the process?
NOTE:
System = gas
Surrounding = atmosphere
Work is negative because
the gas expanded or work
was done by the gas
 THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
a) P – V diagrams are useful tools for visualizing thermodynamic processes
of gases.
b) Pressure on Y-axis, Volume on X-axis
c) Amount of gas remains constant.
d) Use ideal gas laws to determine temperature of gas

The WORK done is the area Temperature

Transition from State under the curve rises as you
A to State B, volume a) As volume expands, gas does travel up and
increases, pressure work (W= negative) right on a PV
decreases b) As volume compresses, work is diagram
done on the gas (W = positive)
 THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Using the PV diagram below, find the amount of work
required to transition from State A to State B, then the
amount of work required from State B to State C.

NOTE:
System = gas
Surrounding = atmosphere
Work is negative because the gas
expanded or work was done by the
gas, the gas is doing work.
Therefore, the energy of the
system is going down
THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
TYPES of P-V PROCESSES
1) ADIABATIC ( Q=0 )
Heat (Q) is not transferred into or
out of the system
U= W
2) ISOBARIC (P=0)
a) Pressure (P) remains constant
b) V/T remains constant
3) ISOCHORIC (V=0)
a) Volume (V) remains constant
b) P/T remains constant
c) W=0, U=Q
4) ISOTHERMAL (T=0)
a) Temperature (T) remains
constant
b) Lines on the PV diagram are
called isotherms.
c) PV remains constant
d) Internal energy of gas remains
constant U=0
THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
TYPES of P-V PROCESSES
1) ADIABATIC ( Q=0 )
Heat (Q) is not transferred into
or out of the system
U= W
2) ISOBARIC (P=0)
a) Pressure (P) remains
constant
b) V/T remains constant
3) ISOCHORIC/ ISOMETRIC
a) Volume (V) remains
constant, (V=0)
b) P/T remains constant
c) W=0, U=Q
4) ISOTHERMAL (T=0)
a) Temperature (T) remains
constant
b) Lines on the PV diagram are
called isotherms.
c) PV remains constant
d) Internal energy of gas
remains constant U=0
 THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1) ADIABATIC EXPANSION
An ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic expansion, doing
2000 joules of work. How much does the gas’ internal
energy change?
 THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
2) REMOVING HEAT
Heat is removed from an ideal gas as its pressure drops from 200 kPa to 100
kPa. The gas then expands from a volume of 0.05 m3 to0.1 m3. Determine the
work done by the gas and the heat added to the gas in the resulting isotherm.
 THERMODYNAMICS: 1st Law
3) RANKING OF PROCESSES
Using the PV diagram at the right
answer the following questions:
a) During which process is the
most work done by the gas
b) During which process is the
most work done on the gas
c) Which state is at the highest
temperature

QUESTION ANSWER REASON

3.1) During which process is the AB System is expanding
most work done by the gas
3.2) During which process is the CA System is compressed
most work done on the gas
3.3) Which state is at the highest Point C Pt furthest to the top and to
temperature the right
 THERMODYNAMICS:
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
 THERMODYNAMICS: 2nd Law
a) Heat engines convert heat into
mechanical work.
b) Efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio
of the energy you get out (in the form
of work) to the energy you put it.

Power in Heat Engines:

- Power is the rate at which work is done
(Power = Work/time)
 THERMODYNAMICS:
Heat Engines & PV Diagrams
• On a PV diagram, a heat engine is a closed system
• CLOCKWISE processes, represent heat engines
• COUNTER-CLOCKWISE processes, represent refrigerators
 THERMODYNAMICS
POWER DEFINITION USE
CYCLE
CARNOT Theoretical heat engine that operates at
CYCLE maximum possible efficiency
RANKINE Used to predict the performance of steam Steam turbines
CYCLE turbine systems. A heat engine that converts
heat into mechanical work. The heat is supplied
externally to a closed loop, which usually uses
water as the working fluid.
BRAYTON Describes the workings of a constant pressure Combustion turbines
CYCLE heat engine. Gas turbine engines and air
breathing jet engines use the Brayton cycle.
OTTO CYCLE Describes the functioning of a typical spark Gasoline Engine or four-
ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic stroke/petrol engine
cycle most commonly found in automobile
engines.
DIESEL combustion process of a reciprocating internal used in aircraft,
CYCLE combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat automobiles, power
generated during the compression of air in the generation, diesel-
THERMODYNAMICS: HEAT ENGINE
HEAT ENGINE converts thermal energy (heat) to
mechanical output (work). The working fluids are
gases and liquids.

A. Phase change cycles

The engine converts the working fluid from a gas to
a liquid.
1) Rankine
2) Regenerative

B. Gas cycles - The working fluid is always gas

1) Carnot
2) Stirling (similar to Otto cycle)
THERMODYNAMICS: CARNOT CYCLE
• Ideal (Carnot) Cycle
• CARNOT’S THEOREM:
• “No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more
efficient than a Carnot Engine operating between those same two
reservoirs.”

43
THERMODYNAMICS: CARNOT CYCLE

44
THERMODYNAMICS: CARNOT CYCLE
• The Carnot Engine is a theoretical heat engine that operates at
maximum possible efficiency
• The Carnot engine uses only isothermal & adiabatic processes
• Carnot efficiency (eC) is the maximum possible theoretical
efficiency
• CARNOT’S THEOREM:
• “No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be
more efficient than a Carnot Engine operating between those
same two reservoirs.”
• Assume that TH and TC must be in Kelvin

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. Determine the maximum efficiency of a heat engine with a high-
temperature reservoir of 1200 K and a low-temperature reservoir of 400K
ANSWER: eC = 66.67%
THERMODYNAMICS: CARNOT CYCLE
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
2. A 35% efficient Carnot Engine absorbs 1000 J of heat per
cycle from a high-temp reservoir held at 600K. Find the
heat expelled per cycle as well as the temperature of the
cold reservoir.
Given: QH=1000J, TH= 600K, eC= 35%
Req’d: a) QC= ? b) TC= ?
Sol’n:
THERMODYNAMICS: CARNOT CYCLE
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
3. A Carnot engine operating between 775K and 305K produces 54 kJ of
work. Determine the
a) efficiency of the engine
b) heat absorb
c) change in entropy during heat rejection
Given: TH=775K, TC= 305K, Work out = -54kJ
Req’d: a) eC= ? b) QH= ? b) S at heat rejection= ?
Sol’n:
 THERMODYNAMICS: REAL CYCLE
There are no ideal cycles - Irreversible systems, losses of
heat
 THERMODYNAMICS: REAL CYCLE
TYPES OF CYCLES
1) Heat Engine
 Rankine
2) Gas Power Systems
 Brayton
3) Internal Combustion Engines
 Otto
 Diesel
 Stirling (similar to Otto cycle)
 Atkison (improved Otto cycle)
4) Refrigeration
5) Heat Pump
6) Air Conditioning
RANKINE CYCLE (Classical Steam Engine)
 Generation power plants
 practical Carnot Cycle
 heat addition and ejection are isobaric (and not isothermal)
 Working fluid is alternatively vaporized and condensed
RANKINE CYCLE (Classical Steam Engine)

1-2 Isentropic Working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the
compression in a pump fluid is a liquid, the pump requires little input energy.
2-3 Isobaric heat addition High pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at
in a boiler constant pressure by an external heat source to become a
dry saturated vapour. Use the steam table
3-4 Isentropic expansion Dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine,
in a turbine generating power. Decreasing the temperature & pressure
of the vapour, and some condensation may occur.
4-1 Isobaric heat The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is
rejection in a condensed at a constant pressure to become a saturated
RANKINE CYCLE (Classical Steam Engine)
 ALTERNATIVE RANKINE CYCLE

Super Heat Reheat Regenerative

 RANKINE CYCLE with Reheat
Increases the area under the curve and thus
iincreasing Wnet and efficiency. Prevents
the problems associated with passing steam
through the turbines. In an actual Power
plant, the efficiency increase is due to:
a) 40% of improvement from increase in
Wnet area
b) 60% from increase turbine efficiency due
to reduced moisture loss because it did
not expand in the multiphase region
 RANKINE CYCLE with Reheat
Increases the area under the curve and thus
iincreasing Wnet and efficiency. Prevents
the problems associated with passing steam
through the turbines. In an actual Power
plant, the efficiency increase is due to:
a) 40% of improvement from increase in
Wnet area
b) 60% from increase turbine efficiency due
to reduced moisture loss because it did
not expand in the multiphase region
 RANKINE CYCLE:
REHEAT & REGENERATIVE
 GAS POWER SYSTEMS:
Brayton Cycle (Joule Cycle)
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
IDEAL 1) Isentropic ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it
Brayton process is pressurized
Cycle 2) Isobaric the compressed air then runs through a combustion
process chamber, where fuel is burned, heating that air—a
constant-pressure process, since the chamber is
open to flow in and out
3) Isentropic the heated, pressurized air then gives up its
process energy, expanding through a turbine (or series of
turbines). Some of the work extracted by the
turbine is used to drive the compressor
4) Isobaric heat rejection (in the atmosphere)
process
ACTUAL 1) Adiabatic compression
Brayton 2) Isobaric heat addition
Cycle
GAS POWER
SYSTEMS:
Brayton Cycle
(Joule Cycle)
 GAS POWER SYSTEMS:
Brayton Cycle (Joule Cycle)
GAS POWER SYSTEMS: Brayton Cycle
GAS POWER SYSTEMS: Brayton Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1) The intake of the compressor of an air-standard
Brayton cycle is 40,000 cfm at 15 psia and 900F. The
pressure compression ratio is 5 and the temperature at
the turbine inlet is 14400F. The exit pressure of the
turbine is 15 psia. Determine the net work, thermal
efficiency of the engine.
 GAS POWER SYSTEMS:
Brayton Cycle (Joule Cycle)
Jet Engine
diagram

J85 GE
unit
Combined Rankine and Brayton Cycle
INTERNAL COMBUSTION HEAT ENGINES
 Combustion of fuel used to
produce work directly
 in heat engines is used to
heat the fluid
 the expansion of the

high temperature and

pressure gases, produced
by the combustion,
directly applies force to a
movable component of
the engine, such as the
pistons or turbine blades
and by moving it over a
distance, generate useful
mechanical energy
 combustion is usually
intermittent
INTERNAL COMBUSTION HEAT ENGINES
OTTO ENGINE (OTTO CYCLE)
 Gasoline vehicles
 External ignition
 Octane rating- measure of the resistance of gasoline and other
fuels to detonate at constant volume.
 The higher the value, the slower the fuel burns
 OTTO ENGINE (OTTO CYCLE)
STEP PROCESS PROCESS DESCRIPTION
1-2 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder
arrangement at constant pressure

2-3 Adiabatic Isentropic an adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the

air as the piston moves from bottom dead
(Isentropic ) compression center (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC)

3-4 Isochoric Heat addition a constant-volume heat transfer to the working

gas from an external source while the piston is
at constant at top dead centre. This process is intended to
volume represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture
and the subsequent rapid burning

4-5 Adiabatic Isentropic an adiabatic (isentropic) expansion (power

stroke)
(Isentropic ) expansion
5-6 Isochoric Rejection of completes the cycle by a constant-volume
process in which heat is rejected from the air
heat at while the piston is at bottom dead centre
constant
volume
the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in
a constant pressure process
 OTTO ENGINE (OTTO CYCLE)

STEP PROCESS
2-3 Adiabatic (Isentropic ) Isentropic compression
3-4 Isochoric Heat addition at constant volume
4-5 Adiabatic (Isentropic ) Isentropic expansion
5-6 Isochoric Rejection of heat at constant volume
 OTTO ENGINE (OTTO CYCLE)

STEP

2-3 Isentropic compression

3-4 Heat addition at

constant volume
4-5 Isentropic expansion

5-6 Rejection of heat at

constant volume
 OTTO
ENGINE
(OTTO
CYCLE)

STEP
2-3 Compression stroke Isentropic compression
3-4 combustion Heat addition at constant volume
4-5 Power stroke Isentropic expansion
5-6 Rejection of heat at constant volume
 OTTO ENGINE (OTTO CYCLE)
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1) An Otto cycle operates on 0.1 lb/s of air from 13 psia and
1300F at the being of compression. The temperature at the
end of combustion is 50000R; compression ratio is 5.5; hot
air standard: k=1.3. Determine:
a) heat added to the system
b) Work produced by the engine
c) efficiency of the engine
INTERNAL COMBUSTION HEAT ENGINES
DIESEL ENGINE
(DIESEL CYCLE)
 The Diesel engine is a
heat engine: it converts
heat into work.
 Diesel cars
 no external ignition
 highest efficiency due
to compression ration
 low speed engines

can exceed 50%

 Diesel Cetanes
 combustion quality

during compression
ignition
 DIESEL ENGINE (DIESEL CYCLE)
STEP PROCESS PROCESS DESCRIPTION
1-2 Adiabatic isentropic energy is transferred into the system in
(Isentropic ) compression of the form of work , but by definition
the fluid (blue) (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or
out of the system in the form of heat.
Work in is done by the piston
compressing the air (system)
2-3 Isobaric reversible energy enters the system as heat. Heat in
constant pressure is done by the combustion of the fuel
heating (red)
3-4 Adiabatic isentropic energy is transferred out of the system in
(Isentropic ) expansion (yellow) the form of , but by definition (isentropic)
no energy is transferred into or out of the
system in the form of heat. Work out () is
done by the working fluid expanding and
pushing a piston (this produces usable
work)
4-1 Isobaric reversible some of energy flows out of the system as
DIESEL ENGINE (DIESEL CYCLE)
 REFRIGERATION:
Reverse-Rankine Vapor
Compression Refrigerationcycle

The working fluid, in its gaseous state, is pressurized and circulated through the system
by a compressor. On the discharge side of the compressor, the now hot and highly
pressurized vapor is cooled in a heat exchanger, called a condenser, until it condenses
into a high pressure, moderate temperature liquid. The condensed refrigerant then
passes through a pressure-lowering device also called a metering device. This may be
an expansion valve, capillary tube, or possibly a work-extracting device such as a
turbine. The low pressure liquid refrigerant then enters another heat exchanger, the
evaporator, in which the fluid absorbs heat and boils. The refrigerant then returns to
the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
REFRIGERATION: Vapor Compression Cycle
STEP PROCESS PROCESS DESCRIPTION
0-1 a circulating refrigerant such as Freon
enters the compressor as a vapor
1-2 Isentropic isentropic the vapor is compressed at constant
compression of entropy and exits the compressor as a
the fluid vapor at a higher temperature, but still
below the vapor pressure at that
temperature
2-3 the vapor travels through the condenser
which cools the vapor until it starts
condensing, and then condenses the vapor
into a liquid by removing additional heat
at constant pressure and temperature
3-4 Isobaric
4-5 the liquid refrigerant goes through the
expansion valve (also called a throttle
valve) where its pressure abruptly
REFRIGERATION:
Vapor Compression
Cycle