Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Predicative logic
Free and bound variables
Rules of Inference
Consistency
Proof of Contradiction
Automatic Theorem proving
Quantifiers and Predicates
Universal quantifier : The quantifier ‘ all ’ is called the Universal
quantifier, and we shall denote it by x (or (x) ), which is an inverted
A followed by the variable x.
x : for all x ( for every x (or) for each x )
Existential quantifier : The quantifier ‘some’ is called the Existential
quantifier, and we shall denote it by x, which is a reversed E
followed by the variable x.
x : for some x ( There exists an x such that or There is at least one
x such that )
Consider the statement, ‘John is a Politician’
Here, ‘John’ is the subject and ‘is a Politician’ is the predicate
Denote the predicate, ‘is a Politician’ symbolically by the predicate
letter P, and the subject ‘John’ by j .
Predicates (Contd.,)
The statement ‘John is a Politician’ can be written as P(j)
P(j) : John is a Politician
If x is any person, then
P(x) : x is a politician
In general, any statement of the type “ x is Q ” is denoted by Q(x).
Let S(x) : x is a scientist. ( Here, S denote the predicate ‘is a scientist’).
P(x) : x is not a politician
P(x) S(x) : x is a politician and x is a scientist.
P(x) S(x) : Either x is a politician or x is a scientist.
P(x) S(y) : If x is a politician then y is a scientist.
x {P(x)} : All are politicians
Predicates (Contd.,)
x {P(x) S(x)} : Some politicians are scientists.
x {P(x) S(x)} : All politicians are scientists.
x {P(x) S(x)} : Every body is either a politician or a scientist
Sentence Abbreviated Meaning
(x) P(x) all true
(x) P(x) at least one true
{(x) P(x)} none true
(x) {P(x)} all false
(x) {P(x)} at least one false
{(x) P(x)} none false
{(x) P(x)} not all true
{(x) P(x)} not all false
Free and Bound variables
Given a formula containing a part of the form (x) P(x) or (x) P(x),
such a part is called an x-bound part of the formula. Further P(x) is the
scope of the quantifier in both the formulas.
Any occurrence of x, in an x-bound part of the formula is called a
bound occurrence of x, while any variable that is not a bound
occurrence is called a free occurrence
Ex: consider, (x) P(x,y)
Here, the scope of the universal quantifier is P(x,y), x is a bound
variable and y is a free variable.
Ex: Consider the formula, (x) (P(x) Q(x))
Here, Scope of the quantifier is P(x) Q(x).
Both the occurrences of x are bound.
Free and Bound variables (Contd.,)
Ex: (x) {P(x) (y) R(x,y)}
Here, the scope of x is P(x) (y) R(x,y)
and the scope of y is R(x,y)
All occurrences of x and y are bound occurrences.
In the bound occurrence of a variable, the letter which is used to
represent the variable is a dummy variable.
The formula (x) {P(x)} is same as (y) {P(y)}
The formula, (y) R(x,y) is same as (z) R(x,z) .
Generally speaking, in order to draw conclusions from quantified
premises, we need to remove quantifiers properly, argue with the
resulting propositions, and then properly prefix the correct quantifiers.
Some Equivalences and Negations
(x) P(x) {(x) P(x)}
(x) {P(x)} {( x) P(x)}
{(x) P(x)} {(x)P(x)}
{(x) ~P(x)} (x) P(x)
Statement Negation
(x) P(x) (x) [P(x)]
(x) [~P(x)] (x) P(x)
(x) [P(x)] (x) P(x)
(x) P(x) (x) [P(x)]
To form the negation of a statement involving one quantifier,we need
only change the quantifier from universal to existential, or from
existential to Universal, and negate the statement it quantifies.
Rules of Inference for Quantified Propositions
Solution: Let the universe consists of all living things, and let
P(x) : x is a plant
A(x) : x is an animal
H(x) : x has a heart
a : David’s dog
Then the argument takes the form
(x) {P(x) A(x)} ….(1)
P(a) ….(2)
x) {A(x) H(x)} ….(3)
H(a)
The formal proof is given below:
From (1), By the rule of Universal Specification, we have P(a) A(a)
Contd.,
P(a) A(a) ….(4)
From (2) and (4), By the rule of Disjunctive syllogism,we have
A(a) ….(5)
From (3), By the rule of Universal Specification, we have
A(a) H(a) …(6)
From (5) and (6), By the rule of modus ponens,
H(a) follows
Hence, the argument is valid.
Ex: Prove that (x){P(x) Q(x)} (x)P(x) (x)Q(x)
Is the converse true? . Justify your answer.
Sentences with Multiple quantifiers
L(x,y)
(y) (x)
(x) (y)
Antecedent rules:
Rule : If , s X , then , X , s
Rule : If X, Y, , s then , X Y , s
s s
Rule : If X, , and Y, , ,
s
then , X Y,
Rule : If Y, , s` s X,
and ,
then , X Y, s
s s
Rule : If X,Y, , and , X, Y,
s
then , XY,
Rules for Automatic Theorem proving (contd.,)
Consequent rules:
Rule : If X, s , then s , X ,
Rule : If s X, , and s Y, ,
then s , X Y,
Rule : If s X, Y, , then s , X Y,
s Y, , and
Rule : If X , s , X Y,
s
Rule : If X , Y, , and Y, s X, ,
s
then , XY,
Examples
Ex: Using Automatic theorem proving, Show that PQ follows from
P.
s
Solution: we need to show that
(1) P (PQ s )
(1) if (2) s PQ)
P ( ( By the rule, )
(2) if (3) P P , Q ( By the rule, )
Now, (3) is an axiom
Hence, the theorem (1) follows.
Ex: Using Automatic theorem proving,
Show that P does not follow from PQ.
Solution: Assume
(1) s (PQ ) P
s
(1) if (2) ( P Q ) P ( By the rule, )
s s
(2) if (3) P P and (4) Q P ( By the rule, )
Note that (3)is an axiom, but (4) is not.
Hence, P does not follow from PQ.
Ex: Using Automatic theorem proving, prove the following
(a) {P(PQ)} R
(b) R {P (P Q)}