BIOMECHANICS OF

SPINE PART 2
 MUSCLES OF THE SPINE

• Anterior Aspect:
• cervical region: (prevertebral muscles)
• Anterior muscle groups of the cervical region are the prevertebral muscles, including the rectus capitis anterior,
rectus capitis lateralis, longus capitis, and longus colli, and the eight pairs of hyoid muscles
• Bilateral tension development by these muscles results in fl exion of the head
• Unilateral tension development contributes to lateral fl exion of the head toward the contracting muscles or to
rotation of the head away from the contracting muscles
Anterior muscles of the cervical region
The hyoid muscles
• Lumber region: (abdominal muscles)
• The main abdominal muscles are the rectus abdominis, the external obliques, and the internal obliques
• Functioning bilaterally, these muscles are the major spinal flexors and also reduce anterior pelvic tilt
• Unilateral tension produces lateral fl exion of the spine toward the tensed muscles
• Internal obliques causes rotation of the spine toward the same side and rotation of pelvis towords opposite
side
• Tension development by the external obliques results in rotation of spine toward the opposite side and rotation
of pelvis towords same side
• These muscles also form the major part of the abdominal wall, which protects the internal organs of the
abdomen.
The rectus abdominis
The internal obliques

The external obliques.

 POSTERIOR ASPECT

• Cervical region: (cervical extensors)

• The splenius capitis and splenius cervicis are the primary cervical extensors with four suboccipitals— the rectus
capitis posterior major and minor and the obliquus capitis superior and inferior- assist
• Bilateral tension development produce cervical extension and unilateral tension produces lateral flexion nad
rotation to contracting side
 The suboccipital muscles
The major cervical extensors.
• Lumber and thorasic region:
• posterior thoracic and lumbar region muscle groups are the massive erector spinae (sacrospinalis), the
semispinalis, and the deep spinal muscles including the multifi di, rotatores, interspinales, intertransversarii and
levatores costarum
• All posterior trunk muscles contribute to extension and hyperextension when contracting bilaterally and to
lateral fl exion when contracting unilaterally
• The prominent erector spinae muscle group—the major extensor and hyperextensor of the trunk—is the
muscle group of the trunk most often strained.
The erector spinae group The semispinalis group
The deep spinal muscles
 LATERAL ASPECT

• Cervical region:
• Muscles on the lateral aspect of the neck include the prominent sternocleidomastoid, the levator scapulae, and
the scalenus anterior, posterior and medius
• Bilateral tension development in the sternocleidomastoid result in either flexion of the neck or extension of the
head, with unilateral contraction producing lateral flexion to the same side or rotation to the opposite side
• The levator scapulae contribute to lateral fl exion of the neck when contracting unilaterally with the scapula
stabilized
• Three scalenes assist with fl exion and lateral fl exion of the neck, depending on whether tension development
is bilateral or unilateral
 The scaleni muscles.
The sternocleidomastoid The levator scapulae
• Lumber region:
• the quadratus lumborum and psoas
major are large, laterally oriented
muscles
• function bilaterally to flex and
unilaterally to laterally flex the lumbar
spine.
 LOADS ON THE SPINE

• Forces acting on the spine include body weight, tension in the spinal ligaments, tension in the
surrounding muscles, intraabdominal pressure, and any applied external loads
• In upright position , spine is under compression loading because of all above mentioned
factors
• Compression Loads during erect standing:
• During erect standing, the total-body center of gravity is anterior to the spinal column,
producing a forward-bending moment
• This forward-bending torque is counteracted by tension in the back extensor muscles
• Flexion of arm or trunk increases this flexor moment contributing to increasing flexor torque
and increasing compensatory tension in the back extensor muscles
• As spinal muscles have extremely small moment arms with respect to the vertebral joints,
greater force must be generated by the extensor muscle to counteract the flexor torque
produced by external loads and weight of body segments
• So the major force acting on the spine is usually that derived from muscle activity
• compression on the lumbar spine increases
with sitting, increases more with spinal
flexion, and increases still further with a
slouched sitting position as pelvis rotates
backward that tends to flatten the lumber
spine, resulting in increased loading on the
The load on the third lumbar disc during upright
intervertebral discs
standing (100%) is markedly reduced in a supine
position, but increases for each of the other positions
shown.
 • Shear loads during erect standing:
• During erect standing, body weight shear (along with compression) in the lumber spine
that creates a tendency for vertebrae to displace anteriorly with respect to adjacent
inferior vertebrae
• To overcome this anteriorly directed shear on vertebrae, back extensor muscle
contraction produce shear that is directed posteriorly, so that it partially counteracts the
anteriorly directed shear produced by body weight
• Shear is a dominant force on the spine during flexion and increased shear stress is
believed to contribute to disc herniation
Body weight during upright standing
produces shear (Fs) as well as compression
(Fc) components on the lumbar spine.
(Note that the vector sum of Fs and Fc is
wt.)
• Flexion relaxation phenomenon:
• Tension in the trunk extensors increases with spinal flexion until the spine approaches full flexion, when this
tension in muscle abruptly disappears
• that flexion torque at the spine is maintained with the support of posterior spinal ligaments. This relaxation of
the spinal extensors at full flexion is known as the flexion relaxation phenomenon
• Repetitive flexion extension activity lead to prolong relaxation of back extensors muscles, reducing the stability
provided by muscles and predispose the individual to back ache
 • Lateral fl exion and rotation:
• Lateral fl exion and rotation create much larger
spinal loads than do fl exion and extension
• Lifting while rotating should be avoided
because it places about three times more stress
on the back than lifting from front in the
sagittal plane
 HOW TO REDUCE LOADS ON THE SPINE

• spinal loading and movement speed:

• Lifting in a rapid, jerking fashion increases compression and shear forces on the spine, as well as tension in the
paraspinal muscles
• Maximizing the smoothness of the motion with external load minimize the peaks compressive force on the
lumbosacral joint
• Compression on the spine can also be reduced by initially bringing the load close to the body and then lifting
• Lift with the legs and not with the back:
• This statement states that during lifting activity, it is advisable to maintain the normal lumbar curve, rather than
either increasing lumbar lordosis or allowing the lumbar spine to flex as
• normal or slightly flattened lumbar curve activate the lumbar extensor muscles and eliminate the anterior shear
produced by body weight
• uniformly distributes the loads on lumbar discs
• Intraabdominal pressure:
• A factor once believed to alleviate compression on the lumbar spine is intraabdominal pressure.
• It acts like a balloon inside the abdominal cavity that the adjacent lumbar spine against the compressive load
• intraabdominal pressure increases just prior to the lifting of a heavy load that help to stiffen the trunk to
prevent the spine from buckling under compressive loads
• It assist the work of spinal extensor muscles and generate sufficient extensor moment to overcome the flexion
moment by body weight