Chemical

Composition of
the Body
 Type of molecules
POLARS NON-POLARS
●All of them have a charge ●All of them DO NOT have a
Cations are + / Anions are - charge
●H2O = water / Na+ = ●Lipids
Sodium ●Steroids
●Ca+ = Calcium /Cl- =chloride ●Estrogens
●H+ = Hydrogen ●Testosterone
●Proteins ●Cortisol, etc
●Amino Acids, etc
Molecules are formed by atoms and those atoms are kept
together with different types of bonds. These bonds have
different kind of strength too. Covalent/ionic/hydrogen bonds
How the molecules can cross the cell membrane?

All cell membranes, ALL !!!!!!, despite the type of cell, are lipidic
(oily).
So, If the molecule that want to cross that membrane is other lipid
molecule, will not have any problem.
Oil (lipid) mix well with other oil= lipophilic
Then, can water mix well with an oil? No, right?
Water is lipophobic with oils and vice versa.
Now, any molecule capable to dissolve in water (our largest amount
of molecules) is consider water friendly = hydrophilic
If the molecule is Hydrophilic = simultaneously is lipophobic
If the molecule is Hydrophobic = simultaneously is lipophilic
POLAR molecules are lipophobic = hydrophilic
Non-Polar molecules are lipophilic=hydrophobic
Acids, Bases, and pH scale

Acid molecule is the one capable to eliminate H+ ions in a

solution. By doing so, increases the concentration of H+ in that
solution = decreases the ph.
Base molecule is the one capable to absorbed H+ ions from a
solution. By doing so, decreases the concentration of H+ in that
solution = increase the pH.
A neutral solution is said to have a pH of 7 (which means
10-7 molar concentration H+).
A) pH scale = Runs from 0 to 14, with 0 the strongest acid and
14 the strongest base.
B) Pure water has a H+ concentration of 10-7, so the pH is 7.
Buffers

a. Buffers stabilize pH in a solution.

b. Has 2 components – a weak acid and a weak base (buffer
pair)
c. In blood, two molecules stabilize pH: bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
and carbonic acid (H2CO3).
1) HCO3- + H+ ↔ H2CO3
2) Bicarbonate neutralizes excess acid
3) Carbonic acid neutralizes excess base
4) They have opposite effects
1) If blood falls below pH 7.35, the condition is called acidosis.
2) If blood rises above pH 7.45, the condition is called alkalosis.
Organic Molecules:

Carbohydrate:
Lipids:
Proteins:
Nucleic Acids:

Common characteristics:
1) Made by building blocks called monomers
2) They can be built up by dehydration mechanism
3) They can be braked down by hydrolysis mechanism
4) They all have carbon and hydrogen.
Carbohydrates: Serve as a major source of energy in the body

Built by monomers called Monosaccharides

a. Monosaccharide: simple sugar
1) Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose
2) Glucose is C6H12O6
b. Disaccharide: two monosaccharides joined by a
covalent bond; examples: sucrose, maltose, lactose.
They come from the combination of Glucose +
Fructose= Sucrose
c. Glucose+ Galactose= Lactose
d. Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
Polysaccharides

1) Polysaccharide: several monosaccharides (generally

glucose) joined together
2) The most common polysaccharide is Starch=From plants.
Composed of thousands of glucose molecules
3) Glycogen – sugar storage in an animal cell; glycogen
does not pull in water via osmosis as simple sugars do.
4) Cellulose – makes up cell walls of plants; cellulose is not
digestible by humans.
3. Dehydration and Hydrolysis
a. Covalent bonds that hold monosaccharides
together are formed via dehydration (condensation)
synthesis where a H+ atom is removed from one
molecule, and a HO-hydroxyl group, is removed
from another to form water.
b. Hydrolysis breaks bonds between
monosaccharides; add water and split the molecule
c. These processes are also used to build/break down
fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Lipids = hydrophobic = lipophilic

Types:
Triglycerides
Ketones
Phospholipids
Steroids
Prostaglandins
Triglycerides (Triacylglycerols)
a. Include fats (solids) and oils (liquids)
b. The most popular lipid
c. Composed of one molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids
d. Also called neutral fats when stored in adipose tissue
e. They can be Saturated or Unsaturated
Ketone Bodies

1) Hydrolysis of triglycerides forms free fatty acids in the

blood produce a large amount of fatty acids. These can be
used for energy or converted into ketone bodies by the
liver.
● Strict low-carbohydrate diets and uncontrolled
diabetes can result in elevated ketone levels, called
ketosis.
● Ketone levels high enough to lower pH can cause
ketoacidosis, which can lead to coma and death.
Phospholipids

a. Lipids with a phosphate group, which makes them

polar.
b. It is the major component of cell membranes as a
double layer, with hydrophilic phosphates pointing
outward on each side and hydrophobic fatty acids and
glycerol pointing inward.
c. As micelles, phospholipids can act as surfactants.
The polar nature of the molecule decreases the
surface tension of water.
1) Surfactant keeps lungs from collapsing.
Micelles/surfactants and Water
Steroids

a. A steroid is structurally very different from a

triglyceride but is nonpolar, so considered a
lipid.
b. Cholesterol is a steroid used (1) as a
precursor to steroid hormones, such as
testosterone, estrogen, and corticosteroids,
and (2) to make molecules such as vitamin D
and bile salts.
Prostaglandins

a. Type of fatty acid with a cyclic hydrocarbon

group
b. Serve as communication molecules between
cells in the same organ
c. They help to regulate blood vessel diameter,
ovulation, uterine contractions, inflammatory
reactions, blood clotting, etc.
Protein Characteristics
● Monomers= amino acid
● An amino acid has an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a
functional group.
● There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in an
endless number of ways.
● The functional group is what differentiates the 20 amino
acids.
● Amino acids are charged, so they attract each other to form
kinks and folds in the protein.
● The sequence of amino acids in a chain is determined by
DNA.
Making a Protein

● When amino acids are joined, a H is stripped from the

amino end and a OH is stripped from the carboxyl end in
dehydration synthesis. This is called a peptide bond.
● When amino acids are added together to form a chain, it
is the primary structure of a protein
A chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide chain.
● 2 amino acids together=peptide
● 3 to 100 amino acids together= polypeptide
● More than 100 amino acids together= Protein
Protein Structure, cont

The chain of Amino Acids can be organized in different

ways producing different types of proteins creating a
specific 3D shape. Such secondary, tertiary or
quaternary (hemoglobin) The structure dictate the
function.
Proteins can be denatured (change in the 3D
shape) if they are exposed to high temperature
(fever)
Conjugated Proteins

● Sometimes proteins are combined with other molecules to

become functional
a. Glycoprotein = Protein + Carbohydrate
1) Examples: some hormones, in cell membranes
b. Lipoprotein = Protein + Lipid
1) Example: in cell membranes, carrier molecules in
blood
Protein Functions = BROAD

● Structural: collagen fibers in connective tissues; keratin

in skin
● Enzymes: assist every chemical process in the body
● Antibodies: part of the immune system
● Receptors: receive communication from other cells for
regulation of cell activity
● Carriers: across cell membranes or in blood
Nucleic Acids

● Made a monomers called Nucleotides

● Nitrogenous base
● Nitrogenous bases fall into two categories:
a. Pyrimidine: Cytosine, thymine, uracil
b. Purine: Guanine, adenine
B. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

● The sugar in this molecule is called deoxyribose and

can bind to one of four nitrogenous bases:
a. Guanine
b. Thymine
c. Cytosine
d. Adenine
● Deoxyribose bonds with a phosphate group (via
dehydration synthesis) to form a long chain, which
serves as the backbone of the molecule.
DNA Structure, cont

3. Each nitrogenous base can form a hydrogen bond

with another to result in a double-stranded molecule.
a. Cytosine can only bind with guanine.
b. Tyrosine can only bind with adenine.
This is the Law of Complementary base pairs
4. The two chains of DNA are twisted, forming a double
helix.
5. DNA is the basis of the genetic code – the sequence
of bases codes for amino acids to make a protein
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

● Similar to DNA except:

a. Has ribose sugar instead of
deoxyribose
b. Is single-stranded instead of double-
stranded
c. Has uracil instead of thymine
2. Types of RNA

a. Three types of RNA are used to take information for

assembling a protein out of the nucleus and to actually
assemble it:
1) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2) Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
b. Other RNA-related molecules serve important functions in
the body
1) ATP, GTP – energy carriers / ADP/AMP
2) cAMP - regulation
3) NAD, FAD – co-enzymes
DNA vs RNA