Biomolecules

Biomolecules are defined as any organic molecule present in a living cell. Biomolecules
include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. It also includes
small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites and natural products. Biomolecules
consist mainly carbon and hydrogen with nitrogen, oxygen, Sulphur and phosphorus. They
are very large molecules of many atoms, which are covalently bound together.

Classes of biomolecules

There are four major classes of biomolecules:

i. Carbohydrates

ii. Lipids

iii. Proteins

iv. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate is an organic compound, it comprises of only oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.

The oxygen: hydrogen ratio is usually is 2:1. The empirical formula being Cn(H2O)n.
Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon; technically they are polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones. Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides; the word saccharide comes from
Greek word ‘sakkron’ which means sugar.

 Classification of carbohydrates

The carbohydrates are divided into three major classes depending upon whether or not they
undergo hydrolysis and if they do, on the number of products formed.

1. Monosaccharides: The monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy

ketones which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis to give simpler carbohydrates. e.g.
Glucose, fructose, Galactose etc.

2. Oligosaccharides: The oligosaccharides (Oligo: few) are carbohydrates which yield a

definite number (2-9) of monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. e.g. Sucrose, Maltose.

3. Polysaccharides: The carbohydrates which have higher molecular weight, which yield
many monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. E.g. Starch, glycogen, Dextrin, Cellulose etc.
  Primary Functions

Carbohydrates provide the body with source of fuel and energy. It aids in proper functioning
of our brain, heart and nervous, digestive and immune system. Deficiency of carbohydrates in
the diet causes fatigue, poor mental function.

Lipids

Lipids are a heterogeneous group of water-insoluble (hydrophobic) organic molecules that

can be extracted from tissues by nonpolar solvents, because of their insolubility in aqueous
solutions, body lipids are generally found compartmentalized, as in the case of membrane-
associated lipids or droplets of triacylglycerol in adipocytes, or transported in plasma in
association with protein, as in lipoprotein particles or on albumin. Lipids are a major source
of energy for the body, and they provide the hydrophobic barrier. They serve additional
functions in the body, for example, some fat-soluble vitamins have regulatory or coenzyme
functions, and the prostaglandins and steroid hormones play major roles in the control of the
body's homeostasis.
 Classification of lipids
1. Simple lipids: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
a. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state.
b. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols.
2. Complex lipids: Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to an alcohol and a fatty
acid.
a. Phospholipids: Lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a
phosphoric acid residue. They frequently have nitrogen containing bases and other
substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is glycerol and in sphingophospholipids
the alcohol is sphingosine.
b. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and
carbohydrate.
c. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and aminolipids. Lipoproteins may
also be placed in this category.
3. Precursor and derived lipids: These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols,
fatty aldehydes, and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins and hormones.
Proteins
Proteins are composed of amino acids, arranged into different groups. These fundamental
amino acids sequences are specific and its arrangements are controlled by the DNA. Since
our body cannot synthesize these essential amino acids by its own, we should have plenty of
protein foods in our everyday diet to keep our body metabolisms stable.

Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis takes place through a process called translation. This process occurs in the
cytoplasm. It involves the rendering of genetic codes. Ribosomes of a cell help in translating
genetic codes into a polypeptide chain. These polypeptide chains become functioning
proteins only after undergoing certain modifications.

Functions of Proteins

 Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take
place within a cell. They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and
carry out complex processes.
 Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of hormones which
help in balancing the components of the body. For example, hormones like insulin,
which helps in regulating blood sugar and secretin. It is also involved in the digestion
process and formation of digestive juices.
 Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is
majorly used by the immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria.
They often work together with other immune cells to identify and separate the
antigens from increasing until the white blood cells destroy them completely.
 Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the movements of our
body. It is important to have the right amount of protein in order to convert it into
energy. Protein, when consumed in excess amounts, gets used to create fat and
becomes part of the fat cells.

Nucleic Acids

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)

Genes carry genetic information from one generation to the other. The structure of nucleic
acids such as DNA consists of a long polymer of nucleotides connected by phosphodiester
bonds. In the case of DNA, the nucleotides are deoxynucleotides. The most widely accepted
structure of DNA (right-handed double- helix) was proposed by Watson and Crick in 1963.

The nitrogenous bases present in DNA are Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, and Cytosine. This
suggests that there are four different types of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA- deoxyadenosine
monophosphate (dAMP), deoxyguanosine monophosphate (dGMP), deoxythymidine
monophosphate (dTMP) and deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCTP).  The two strands of the
DNA helix are antiparallel to each other exhibiting complementary pairing between two
specific bases. Adenine pairs with thymine (A=T), while guanine pairs with cytosine (G≡C). 
If we imagine the structure of DNA in the form of a staircase model, the complementary base
pairs will form the stairs and the sugar-phosphate backbone will form the stair railings.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Ribonucleic acid is an example of the nucleic acid formed by the polymerization of

ribonucleotides. It is a single-stranded chain formed by 7-12000 ribonucleotides. This
structure of nucleic acid contains ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The
nitrogenous bases in RNA are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil (U). RNA is formed
from DNA by the process of ‘transcription’ and is generally involved in protein synthesis.

Types of RNA include – Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA) and Messenger
RNA (mRNA).

 Functions of nucleic acids

 DNA is the genetic material carrying hereditary information.

 By the process of transcription, it gives rise to RNA which in turn contains the code
for the synthesis of proteins.
 DNA controls cell metabolism along with differentiation and development of an
organism.
 Mutations in DNA help organisms evolve and adapt to changing conditions.
 RNA forms the genetic code in certain viruses such as HIV.